a subterranean realm created by dwarves but long since taken over by evil creatures. In Moria, the company is nearly captured by hosts of orcs and trolls. In guarding their flight, Gandalf is pulled into an abyss while fighting a Balrog, a powerful demon.

Escaping to the elven realm of Lothlórien, the company is equipped with boats, in which they travel down the River Anduin. Frodo comes to the decision that he cannot allow his friends to accompany him on the harrowing trip into Mordor, and he steals away from the others; Sam, however, catches up with him. At the same time, the other members of the company are attacked by orcs. Boromir is killed, and Merry and Pippin are captured. Choosing to follow the hostages, Aragorn and the others pursue the orcs, leaving Frodo and Sam to continue the quest alone.

The action then diverges into two principal story lines. Aragorn’s party is reunited with Gandalf, who has survived his ordeal and returned with renewed wizardly power. Merry and Pippin escape the orcs and meet the Ents, powerful, ancient, treelike beings who care for the forests. With the assistance of the men of Rohan, they defeat the forces of the treacherous wizard Saruman, who had hoped to rival Sauron. Gandalf and the others then go to Gondor, where they organize resistance to Sauron’s invading forces. In a huge battle, Sauron’s advance troops are routed, but the defenders of the West remain hopelessly outnumbered. Concluding that their only chance is to distract Sauron’s attention so that Frodo and Sam can reach their goal, the allied forces advance toward Mordor.

Meanwhile, Frodo and Sam attempt to approach Mordor through the Dead Marshes, a noxious maze of swamps. There they capture Gollum, a twisted, hobbitlike creature who once possessed the Ring and who has been following Frodo in the hope of reclaiming it.

Intimidated by the power of the Ring, Gollum reluctantly agrees to guide the hobbits into Mordor. He brings them safely through a dangerous mountain pass only to betray them by leading them into the lair of Shelob, a colossal spider. Frodo, stung by Shelob, appears to be dead; Sam fights off the spider and reluctantly takes the Ring. He leaves to continue the quest, and orcs capture Frodo, who recovers from the effects of the spider’s poison. Sam realizes his error and returns to liberate Frodo. Dogged by Gollum and hiding from orcs, they continue their journey through the desolate landscape of Mordor.

The climactic scene takes place on Mount Doom. Gollum assaults the hobbits as they struggle up the mountainside, but Sam fends him off as Frodo goes on. Gollum evades Sam and catches Frodo as he stands over the cracks leading to the mountain’s fiery interior. Frodo, overcome at last by the evil power of the Ring, refuses to destroy it; instead, he puts it on his finger and claims it for his own. At the same moment, Gollum attacks Frodo and bites the Ring—and a finger—from his hand. Gollum loses his balance and falls into the abyss, destroying both himself and the Ring, and the mountain erupts.

The beleaguered troops of the West are on the verge of being overcome. With the destruction of the Ring, however, everything created with its power is also destroyed. Mordor’s gates and fortresses crumble, and the orcs and trolls are driven to madness. As the reinvigorated allied troops complete the rout, Gandalf flies to Mount Doom on the back of an enormous eagle, rescuing Frodo and Sam from certain death. The hobbits are returned to Gondor, where they witness the coronation of Aragorn. They then return to the Shire, which in their absence has fallen under the sway of petty evil, to set things to rights in their homeland.

The Work

The trilogy that featured Middle-earth, the fantasy world created by John Ronald Reuel Tolkien, became mandatory reading for many in the 1960’s. The Lord of the Rings was published in three volumes, The Fellowship of the Ring (1954), The Two Towers (1955), and The Return of the King (1956). Its already significant popularity grew when Ballantine Books issued a paperback edition in 1968.

The Lord of the Rings, or the Tolkien trilogy, describes the struggle between good and evil in Middle-earth, a place that is simpler and more honest than the real world yet contains many of the concerns that troubled people in the 1960’s. Greed, suspicion, and vanity haunt many of the characters. The evil that must be conquered is chiefly one of mind control, but it also entails destruction of the natural world. Tolkien, who was a Medieval scholar, used his familiarity with myth, language, and feudal society to create an entire world, complete with languages, theology, and political and geographical realities. In Tolkien’s world, all beings control their own destinies and must freely choose their fate, often with bittersweet results. All must confront the lure and destructiveness of total power, represented by the Ring.

In the first volume, The Fellowship of the Ring, the wizard Gandalf discovers that a simple ring carries an overwhelming power that could be used to dominate the land. Frodo and his friends, Sam, Merry, and Pippin, set off to destroy the Ring. The four hobbits gain other companions—humans, dwarves and elves—who represent the major races helping in the struggle against the evil Dark Lord, Sauron. In The Two Towers, the company formed to accomplish the errand splits apart, partly because of jealousy and partly because Frodo believes he must continue on alone. Merry and Pippin meet the ents, a treelike people who help to neutralize a power-hungry wizard, Saruman. The others rouse the Riders of Rohan, Nordic-like horsemen, to add their arms to the struggle. The Riders go to help the people of Gondor, the last barrier to Sauron’s conquest. In The Return of the King, Strider, one of Frodo’s companions, is revealed as the new king. Frodo and Sam finally destroy the Ring, but only after each has faced his own weaknesses. The destruction of the Ring brings the end of the age of magic, and elves and wizards depart for another land.

Impact

The Lord of the Rings was originally published in the 1950’s in the United States and England. The trilogy became overwhelmingly popular in the United States when Ballantine Books issued a paperback edition in 1968. Its appeal lay partly in its description of a magical world, where people had powers beyond those of the everyday world. More significantly, it described the conflict between noble and ignoble forces in a lyrical yet concrete way. The heroes struggled not only with external forces but also with their own shortcomings. These struggles caught the imaginations of its readers, typically adolescents and young adults, who were concerned with challenging themselves and the world about them. As they stood in protest lines, they could imagine themselves engaged in a heroic struggle, much like that of the hobbits of Middle-earth.

Discussion groups, Tolkien societies, and fan magazines sprouted in the 1960’s and continued with vigor throughout the remainder of the twentieth century. Fantasy as a literary genre became both more popular and more respected as adult literature. Other authors such as Anne McCaffrey and Piers Anthony, inspired by Tolkien’s work, also developed trilogies and series based on fantasy themes.

Related Work

Tolkien’s prequel to the trilogy was The Hobbit (1937), which described the land of Middle-earth about fifty years before the time period described in the trilogy.

Additional Information

For an analysis of the meaning of Tolkien’s works, see T. A. Shippey’s The Road to Middle-Earth (1992) or Paul H. Kocher’s Master of Middle- earth.

Introduction
Tolkien is often perceived as a typical product of late Victorian and Edwardian England, deeply entrenched in the British intellectual elite. However, in many respects, he was quite unique. His Catholic faith, fervent interest in Philology, profound appreciation for nature, and skepticism towards technological advancements, especially the internal combustion engine, made him an unconventional figure in his society. As the atomic bomb was being developed, Tolkien's narrative introduced the Ring as a technology that must be destroyed rather than controlled—a source of unlimited power that corrupts and annihilates even the noblest individuals. His depiction of the Shire, where society functions because justice and law are internalized rather than imposed, aligns more closely with the Jeffersonian ideal of democracy than with Imperial or Post-Imperial Britain. Far from being an imperialist, Tolkien championed localism, as evidenced by Aragorn's treatment of Rohan, the Woses, and the Shire. He deeply identified with the West Midlands of England and dedicated much of his academic career to studying its medieval texts, which he believed preserved a literary language and a sense of identity through the oppressive Norman French rule.

Philology
Tolkien's love for languages began with his early Latin lessons with his mother. Philology, as it evolved in the early nineteenth century following the discovery of Sanskrit and its grammarians by Western scholars, was a significant intellectual achievement of that era. The discovery of a language family spanning from Ireland to India and the patterns of their development, with history encapsulated in words and their evolving pronunciations and meanings, can be likened to the revolutionary advancements in twentieth-century cosmology. In fact, Philology could be considered the particle physics of literature. It enabled scholars to understand ancient thought patterns. At its best, Philology makes readers sensitive to subtle shifts in word meanings, reflecting conceptual evolution. At its worst, it may seem like an overly intricate word game to outsiders. Proper Philology demands hard work, linguistic aptitude, and meticulous care in text analysis. Even at Oxford during Tolkien's tenure, Philology faced criticism from faculty members who believed that literature and their students should not be burdened with what they viewed as trivial details.

The Destruction of the Countryside and the Fallibility of Progress
In the "Scouring of the Shire" chapter of The Return of the King, Frodo, Sam, Merry, and Pippin return to find that Sharkey (Saruman) and his men have been devastating the Shire. They have erected unsightly buildings, cut down trees, and polluted the water and air. This is a smaller scale version of the destruction seen in Mordor and imitated at Isengard. Tolkien was highly skeptical of the concept of progress, which seemed to dominate his era. Unlike many of his peers, he had firsthand experience with the harsh realities of industrialization, having lived in some of the worst areas of industrial Birmingham. He expressed confusion over colleagues who referred to the sprawling car factories around Oxford as the "real world," implying that fields and trees were somehow less real. He lamented the loss of a large tree cut down by a neighbor, seemingly just for the audacity of being alive and large. He was also keenly aware of how technology was often used and the motivations behind its development. In The Hobbit, he wrote, "It is not unlikely that they (Orcs) invented some of the machines that have since troubled the world, especially the ingenious devices for killing large numbers of people at once, for wheels and engines and explosions always delighted them, and also not working with their own hands more than they could help; but in those days and those wild places they had not advanced (as it is called) so far." He also wrote about prisoners and slaves forced to work "until they die for want of light and air." However, the Ring transcends a simple symbol of the atom bomb, and Sauron has no exact historical counterpart. They represent the concept of evil, with historical evils merely participating in this idea. They symbolize a situation where, like Frodo, mid-twentieth-century men and women found themselves in possession of a power over nature. This power is a threat to humanity so great that even the thought and desire to use it corrupts. It is not enough to keep it out of the hands of evil; it will also corrupt the good.

The Lord of the Rings and Catholicism
Tolkien's Catholic faith was profoundly significant to him. His devotion to Christ present in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper was both traditional and fervent. However, he was not a typical conservative Catholic, and his faith did not limit his intellectual freedom. Even if we did not know he supported the Ecumenical movement and criticized the Church's paternalistic attitude, his ability to create a narrative and world independent of traditional biblical stories would suggest it.

The Experience of the Twentieth Century, Old English Literature, and Heroism
Tolkien did not dismiss the concept of heroism but redefined it over several years. His understanding and portrayal of heroism evolved from an interaction between two Old English texts and the realities of the twentieth century. Analyzing the Old English epic Beowulf within the context of the 1930s, he focused on the presence of radical evil and the necessity of opposing it, even when facing inevitable defeat. By the 1950s, the nearly unavoidable pride of the traditional hero became a significant theme in Tolkien's thoughts and writings on the Old English poem "The Battle of Maldon." In this poem, the narrator suggests that Earl Beortnoth grants the Vikings an advantage out of pride, thus sacrificing his men's lives by prioritizing 'good form' over common sense. In Tolkien's mind, true heroism had become associated with obedience, love, and service.

This perspective on heroism is not new. It traditionally represented the sacrifice of Christ and supported the idea of the king as the shepherd of his people. Tolkien embraced this view of heroism during his harrowing experiences in World War I. The relinquishment of power is central to Tolkien's notion of heroism and his understanding of the transformative impact of humanity's capacity for self-destruction. True heroism, for Tolkien, required restraint, selflessness, and a commitment to the greater good. It even demanded the renunciation of glory. Significantly, Aragorn insists that the focus should be on the Ringbearers and Gandalf rather than himself. Equally important is Frodo's apparent relief at not being celebrated in the Shire, and Sam's lack of awareness of his own fame.

Physically, Middle-earth bears a resemblance to our modern world. However, it is the inhabitants who infuse it with the touch of unreality expected in what Tolkien describes as a "secondary" world. In creating a realm for his hobbits, elves, wizards, dwarves, ents, orcs, ringwraiths, and other extraordinary beings, Tolkien exercises the creative rights he discusses in his essay "On Fairy-stories." These rights include the freedom to manipulate nature and use the world as a foundation to craft something novel, all while ensuring this new world adheres to its own principles of internal consistency.

Much of Middle-earth's mythology and history is conveyed through songs that permeate the narrative. Additionally, a more structured "history," complete with timelines for the four ages of Middle-earth and genealogies of significant families of elves, dwarves, hobbits, and humans, is provided as an appendix to the third volume.

Point of View
In the Prologue to Lord of the Rings, Tolkien employs a familiar literary device: he claims to have 'translated' the text from the Red Book of Westmarch, written by Bilbo and Frodo. Throughout much of Lord of the Rings, the narrative is told from a third-person perspective, but there are significant moments of omniscience. These moments arise from the intricate circumstances of translating an autobiographical account, rather than a shift in narrative style. A character's thoughts are typically revealed through their words or actions. When omniscience is present, it is usually Frodo's mind that is explored. For instance, during the debate before the company leaves Lórien, Boromir's thoughts are shown through his speech and actions, while the reader gains insight into Frodo's mind. A more intricate example occurs when Frodo's struggle with Sauron's eye is depicted. When Frodo dons the Ring, the narrator becomes fully omniscient, but this shift is carefully foreshadowed by the Ring's influence. If readers accept that the 'real' authors are part of the story, and that one of them has the enhanced awareness from the Ring, it becomes plausible to access the thoughts of Frodo, Sam, and even Sauron by the end.

Setting
In the Prologue to Lord of the Rings, Tolkien describes Middle Earth: "Those days, the Third Age of Middle Earth are now long past, and the shape of all lands have been changed; but the regions in which the Hobbits lived are doubtless the same as those in which they still linger: the North-West of the Old World, east of the Sea." The landscapes through which Tolkien's characters travel, described in rich detail, clearly evoke European terrains, from the arctic regions of Norway to the Mediterranean shores. It is a sparsely populated, pre-industrial world with scattered, self-sufficient communities. Alongside his meticulous depiction of the landscape and the broader topography of Middle Earth, Tolkien pays close attention to chronology and astronomical data, implying that his narrative is set in a time not too distant in astronomical terms. Despite this, the landscape of Middle Earth echoes epic terrains dating back to Homer. The battles across the Pelennor Fields can be likened to those in the Iliad. Lórien draws inspiration from both Circe's island and the land of the Phoenicians, while Meduseld is modeled after Heorot from Beowulf.

Allusions
Tolkien's allusions are self-contained, drawn exclusively from the history he created for Middle Earth. Perhaps because the Silmarillion was unpublished and seemed unlikely to be published when he wrote Lord of the Rings, even these allusions are kept to a minimum.

Imagery
Tolkien's imagery is deeply traditional. While some critics have expressed concerns about his use of black and white, a closer examination reveals its complexity and subtlety. For instance, the corrupted wizard Saruman is associated with white, while Aragorn's banner is white on a black background, and he dons black armor. Grey is another significant color; elven cloaks are grey, and Gandalf is known as the Grey. Additionally, some critics have interpreted Tolkien's portrayal of industrial landscapes as indicative of class disdain or a dislike for urban industrial workers, a notion that is far from his true views, much like Blake's when he wrote of 'dark satanic mills.' Two particular images stand out. One is the vision of a massive wave engulfing fields, houses, and trees, symbolizing the drowning of Númenor, a dream Tolkien had since childhood. The second is his intricate depiction of trees and forests, ranging from the positive trees of the Valar to the malevolent Old Man Willow.

Quest or Anti-Quest
The Lord of the Rings has been analyzed as a quest narrative since at least Auden's time. Gandalf himself proclaimed, "The realm of Sauron is ended. The Ring-bearer has fulfilled his quest," as Mordor and its armies fell. Typically, a quest involves searching for something or someone. Challenges and adversaries must be overcome, but even if this entails destroying evil beings or places, the destruction is merely the means to achieve the quest. In Lord of the Rings, only Sauron, his minions, and Gollum are actively seeking the Ring. Frodo and his companions already possess the Ring; their sole mission is to destroy it, thereby eliminating Sauron's menace. Even Aragorn, who seems to turn towards saving Gondor and embracing his destiny, uses himself as a diversion to draw Sauron's attention away from the Ringbearer. In this regard, Lord of the Rings shares a resemblance with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where Victor Frankenstein endeavors to destroy his own flawed and uncontrollable creation.

Fantasy
While all fiction authors "make things up," fantasy takes this act of 'subcreation'—crafting a world or vision of the world with internal consistency and truth—to a much higher level. Fantasy worlds are depicted with sharper details and more vivid colors. At its finest, fantasy brings the audience to a new awareness of reality. The reader believes not because the genre demands a suspension of disbelief, but because the coherence and consistency of the imagined world are compelling. The success of The Lord of the Rings is equally due to its detailed physical world and the thorough development of Middle Earth's historical cause and effect. Writing fantasy requires immense discipline; otherwise, it risks devolving into sentimental wish fulfillment. A fantasy writer can grant their characters a vast range of experiences but must be highly selective in how the characters respond to them. Modern fantasy's most successful works often expand the range of reactions by altering the expected character archetypes. In this regard, Tolkien led the way, introducing an almost Dickensian level of invention.

Tolkien's application of techniques drawn from medieval literature has been extensively analyzed. It is sufficient to state that the methods he employed in The Hobbit are even more pronounced in The Lord of the Rings. However, what sets Tolkien's magnum opus apart is its scale. Except for Austin Tappan Wright, the author of Islandia (1942), no fantasy writer had created a world as meticulously detailed as Tolkien's Middle-earth. In fact, the entire tradition of including maps and appendices on languages, calendars, histories, and cultures at the end of fantasy novels originates almost entirely from The Lord of the Rings, whose final volume features over one hundred and twenty pages of such content. It could even be argued that Tolkien's later posthumous bestseller The Silmarillion (1977), along with the numerous volumes of literary fragments published by Christopher Tolkien since 1980, are essentially extended appendices to The Lord of the Rings.

At the outset of The Fellowship of the Ring, Tolkien intentionally connects the trilogy to its precursor, The Hobbit. He recounts the return of Bilbo, Gandalf, and the Ring, and in the prologue, he elaborates on the nature of hobbits and summarizes the tale of Bilbo and Gollum. Initially, the narrative maintains the lighthearted tone of the earlier novel, but as the story progresses, this tone diminishes, only occasionally surfacing in the words and actions of the lively hobbits.

The author faces two significant challenges in structuring the three volumes: enhancing the story's historical depth and weaving together the numerous narrative threads. To integrate Frodo's quest into a more cosmic battle, Tolkien continues to develop the history of Middle-earth. He uses Gandalf and Elrond to narrate the ancient history of Sauron, the Lord of the Rings, and offers many glimpses of the mythological and legendary past through songs, allusions, and stories told by elves, dwarves, ents, and humans. Tolkien allows information to emerge gradually. For instance, the Black Riders appear multiple times, each encounter increasing the hobbits' fear, before they are revealed as the Ringwraiths. Aragorn's nobility is also revealed progressively, not only through his historical achievements but also through revelations about his lineage from legendary heroes. The destruction of the Ring and Aragorn's coronation complete a sequence of events that stretches from the end of the third age back to the creation of elves and men in the first age. The concise history of Middle-earth in the appendix provides a more extensive explanation for many of the references within the trilogy itself; several sections of the appendix also extend into the future.

While Tolkien deepens the overall scope of the War of the Ring, he also intertwines separate narrative threads to recount the great deeds of the Fellowship. In the first volume, the action progresses smoothly and rapidly, with adventures unfolding sequentially and flashbacks enriching the story without disrupting the timeline. However, after the Fellowship splits, Tolkien connects the activities of the separated members through a more complex system of flashbacks, foreshadowings, retellings, and references to events occurring simultaneously in different locations.

Following Boromir's death, Tolkien traces the journeys of two groups of six members; later (in book five), the narrative becomes even more intricate as the members regroup into three factions. Isengard and Minas Tirith serve not only as meeting points where the six members can recount recent events to each other (and to the reader) but also as dramatic settings to which Frodo and Sam's story can be linked.

At the conclusion of the final volume, The Return of the King, Tolkien brings the story full circle with the hobbits' return to the Shire following Aragorn's coronation and marriage. During their journey home, the reader discovers the fates of various characters from earlier in the quest. Tolkien meticulously ties up all loose ends. For instance, Saruman is eliminated from Middle-earth, Sam's pony Bill reappears to avenge his old master and bring joy to Sam, and Lobelia Sackville-Baggins demonstrates that goodness can take many forms. Additionally, the narrator eventually discloses who possesses the Ring of Fire, clarifying the source of Gandalf's fire-creating powers.

Throughout the trilogy, Tolkien exemplifies his vision of true fantasy. He creates an internally consistent secondary world where events follow established principles. Although some Middle-earth inhabitants are unfamiliar to the "real" world, they fit seamlessly within Tolkien's universe. Characters who appear repeatedly act in accordance with their inherent traits. For example, orcs are consistently depicted as cruel, crude, ugly, and quarrelsome; they thrive in darkness and despise sunlight. When orcs do not cower from the sun, Aragorn perceives it as a sign of Saruman's increased control over them.

Ents consistently express their hatred of orcs and their desire to find the lost entwives. Their legends, unique personalities, and the characteristics of their leader Fangorn add humor and highlight nature's role in the world's history. The presence of talking trees is explained by their historical relationship with elves, who befriended the ents and taught them to speak. Whenever elves appear, they are depicted as beautiful and good, with a love for starlight, water, and trees. The mythic importance of their "Star Queen," Elbereth, permeates the trilogy, along with the concept of elves traveling over the sea to the west.

The final departure of the elves with Gandalf and the two ring-bearers provides an ending that aligns with elven traditions and the cyclical nature of the narrative.

Frodo makes significant discoveries about the world much like Bilbo did in The Hobbit (1937), but in The Lord of the Rings, the stakes are much higher. The variety of cultures Frodo must adapt to has greatly expanded, as has the importance of his adjustment. While Bilbo faced evil on a relatively small scale in the form of the dragon Smaug, Frodo must confront an absolute, all-encompassing evil in Sauron. Bilbo had to grow and change, but he and his allies were essentially good throughout The Hobbit. The evil Bilbo confronted was external to him. In contrast, Frodo quickly learns that the evil he must battle in The Lord of the Rings is both external, embodied by Sauron and his minions, and internal, reflected in his own easily corrupted desire for control. Even Gandalf, Frodo is told, is susceptible to corruption. Nothing is certain. What the author might be addressing here, despite Tolkien's denial of any explicit connection, is the aftermath of World War II. Although Tolkien had experienced the horrors of trench warfare in World War I, it did not cast a dark shadow over The Hobbit. The evil in that book is ultimately manageable, and readers never truly doubt the heroes' ability to triumph. This is not the case in The Lord of the Rings. Here, readers genuinely question whether Frodo can succeed, overcome both Sauron and himself, and destroy the One Ring. Even with the knowledge of plot requirements and the story's conclusion, readers have doubts—and rightly so. At the end of The Hobbit, evil is completely vanquished. However, at the end of The Lord of the Rings, it is merely pushed back. World War I was dubbed "the war to end all wars," but World War II shattered that notion forever. Although Tolkien strongly rejected simplistic comparisons between Sauron and Hitler or Gondor and France, it is evident that The Lord of the Rings is, at least in part, a reaction to the horrors of Nazism, modern mechanized warfare, concentration camps, and the atomic bomb.

Additional Commentary

In the preface to his trilogy, Tolkien differentiates between allegory and applicability in literature. Although he denies embedding any allegorical meaning in his story, he acknowledges that readers have the freedom to interpret the story as they wish. Given this disclaimer, interpreting The Lord of the Rings as a political or social allegory, as some critics have done, seems to contradict his intention. However, readers from any era can find relevance in the overarching principles depicted in the trilogy. For example, the collaboration between elves, dwarves, hobbits, and humans, despite their "racial" differences, can inspire hope that modern human races can overcome their own differences, much like the mutual distrust between dwarves and elves.

Middle-earth is a setting for numerous battles, often brutal and bloody. The protagonists fight valiantly, sometimes against overwhelming odds, but the "good" characters rarely take pleasure in the violence. Exceptions include Fangorn and the ents' joy in defeating Saruman and his orcs, and Legolas and Gimli's friendly competition in counting orc kills. Before the Battle of Bywater, upon returning to the Shire, Frodo instructs his friends to avoid killing their enemies if possible. Saruman himself might have been spared had his own cruelty not driven the enslaved Grima to turn on him.

Evil is easily identifiable by its ugliness and its consequences. Similarly, goodness is recognizable, and its benefits are more enduring. The author does not preach; instead, his virtuous characters demonstrate mercy, perseverance, generosity, and friendship through their actions. Sauron, Saruman, and the Ringwraiths represent the vices of hatred, greed, and the lust for power. Sauron's corrupting influence on formerly normal men illustrates the pervasive nature of evil, as does the desolation of Mordor. Although the defeat of Sauron and the Ringwraiths indicates that evil can be vanquished, it does not suggest that eradicating a major source of evil eliminates all evil. The Southrons continue to fight even after Sauron's downfall, Saruman's minions persist in their destruction in the Shire, and Aragorn must still establish border guardians. Post-Sauron Middle-earth is not a Utopia, but it remains a world akin to ours, worthy of nurturing to cultivate beauty and goodness. In Gondor and the Shire, hope endures.

The concept of the bildungsroman, previously discussed in relation to The Hobbit, is perhaps even more pertinent to The Lord of the Rings. This is partly because we learn about Bilbo's later life. Some consequences of his adventures remain unclear at the end of The Hobbit. More importantly, the bildungsroman concept is even more relevant to Frodo Baggins, the central character of The Lord of the Rings, than it was to Bilbo. Frodo is a young man at the start of his story. Although, like Bilbo, he is far from poor, he is also somewhat of an outsider. When he leaves the relative safety of the Shire for the perils of the outside world, he faces moral decisions far more complex than those Bilbo encountered. When he returns to the Shire, transformed by his experiences, he stays for a while but must eventually leave again. Those who have carried the Ring are forever altered by it.

The traditional bildungsroman typically features a protagonist whose adventures are personal and affect only him and his immediate circle. Rarely do the hero's decisions significantly impact the larger world. This is not entirely true in The Hobbit and certainly not the case in The Lord of the Rings. Frodo's moral courage determines the fate of all Middle-earth. This intersection offers much room for rich discussion; Tolkien underscores that personal moral choices can have vast public repercussions.

1. Tolkien consistently rejected any interpretation of his work as religious or political allegory, yet it is immensely tempting to do so. In your view, to what extent can Frodo or Gandalf be seen as Christ figures? To what degree can The Lord of the Rings be interpreted as a retelling of World War II?

2. The Hobbit is considered a children's story, whereas The Lord of the Rings is generally seen as an adult novel. To what extent is this difference reflected in the evolving characterization of Bilbo Baggins, Gollum, and Gandalf? In other words, how do these characters in The Hobbit differ from their counterparts in The Lord of the Rings?

3. Compare Bilbo in The Hobbit to Frodo in The Lord of the Rings. How do their journeys differ? In answering this, go beyond the obvious facts of their adventures. By the end of The Hobbit, Bilbo has essentially become a "man." Can the same be said of Frodo by the end of The Lord of the Rings? Compare the amount of pain and disillusionment the two characters endure throughout their journeys. Does the concept of adulthood take on darker implications in the latter novel?

4. In a conventional hero narrative, Aragorn would be the central character of The Lord of the Rings. Indeed, he receives the classic hero's rewards of kingship and renown by the story's conclusion. However, Tolkien places Frodo at the forefront instead. Why did the author select Frodo as the protagonist when Aragorn was an available option?

5. Beyond character development and length, what other elements distinguish The Hobbit as a children's book and The Lord of the Rings as a novel for adults?

6. Tolkien deeply explores the theme of evil in The Lord of the Rings, particularly its power to corrupt even the noblest individuals. Consider characters like Boromir, Theoden, Saruman, and even Frodo. How are they affected by evil, and to what degree? Is their corruption reversible, and what consequences do they face? Why is Frodo more resistant to corruption compared to the more traditionally heroic Boromir? How do Aragorn and Gandalf avoid becoming corrupted?

7. Most heroic stories conclude with the eradication of evil. The black knight is defeated, the wicked witch is destroyed, and the wolf is either killed or driven away for good. This is the case in The Hobbit. However, in The Lord of the Rings, it becomes evident that despite all the suffering and heroism of Frodo, Aragorn, Gandalf, and their companions, evil is only temporarily subdued. Sauron can be defeated for a time, but he cannot be permanently destroyed and will eventually return. What are your thoughts on this pessimistic view?

8. Examine the role of Gollum in The Lord of the Rings. One of his primary functions is to illustrate the corrupting power of the ring and evil in general. He symbolizes what could happen to Frodo if he succumbs to the ring's influence. However, Gollum's character is more complex than just serving as a negative example. Analyze the scene at the Crack of Doom when the ring is destroyed. What part does Gollum play in this moment? Has Frodo ultimately been overcome by the ring's evil?

9. Many readers have questioned why Tolkien chose to conclude The Lord of the Rings with the chapters "The Scouring of the Shire" and "The Grey Havens." What are your interpretations of these chapters? What purposes do they serve in the story?

10. How do the various appendices in The Lord of the Rings enhance your understanding of the novel and your overall reading experience?

11. Many modern fantasy authors owe a significant debt to Tolkien, including Stephen R. Donaldson, Terry Brooks, Guy Gavriel Kay, Tad Williams, Robert Jordan, Raymond E. Feist, and David Eddings. If you are acquainted with the works of any of these writers (or others influenced by Tolkien), compare their creations to The Lord of the Rings. What similarities do you notice? What differences stand out? Some critics argue that Tolkien's impact on contemporary fantasy fiction isn't entirely beneficial. Can you understand this perspective?

12. Obtain copies of Bakshi's animated film adaptation of The Lord of the Rings and the Rankin-Bass version of The Return of the King. How well do these films capture the essence of the original works?

Early Twentieth Century: Tolkien's high school education focuses heavily on the languages and literature of Greece and Rome. He is expected not only to read and write in both languages but also to speak them with a degree of fluency. Debating in Latin is common, and debating in Classical Greek is not unheard of.

Today: Science and technical subjects have become central to the curriculum in English-speaking countries, and few students receive such extensive training even in their native language.

Early Twentieth Century: The society Tolkien portrays is largely self-sufficient, with families growing their own food and most goods being produced locally by artisans. Trade, when mentioned, usually involves luxuries such as wine, pipeweed, and dwarf-made toys. During Tolkien's childhood in the English countryside, this lifestyle would have felt quite familiar and not like a fantasy.

Today: Nearly all goods are mass-produced, often distributed on a global scale, and even the preparation of meals from basic ingredients is increasingly replaced by ready-made foods.

Early Twentieth Century: There is significant hostility towards Catholics among many British people. Mrs. Tolkien's conversion isolates her and her children from both her own family and her husband's family. Her sister, who converts at the same time, is compelled by her husband to renounce her new faith.

Today: Britain has a significant population of Sikhs, Muslims, and Hindus whose religious practices are generally respected and who are legally protected from discrimination.

Although The Lord of the Rings is undoubtedly a novel for adults and The Hobbit is clearly intended for children (though adults also cherish it), both works share significant similarities and draw from many identical literary sources. Where they differ, The Hobbit leans more towards folk traditions, while The Lord of the Rings is more influenced by medieval chronicles and the high romance tradition exemplified by Chretien de Troyes and Sir Thomas Malory.

Researchers examining the literary influences on Tolkien have discovered numerous references to Spenser, Tasso, Shakespeare, Milton, and other renowned authors.

The Lord of the Rings continues the tale of the ring of invisibility discovered by Bilbo Baggins in The Hobbit. It also incorporates elements from Tolkien's later works on Middle-earth mythology, such as The Silmarillion. Unlike The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit has a tone and characterization similar to an elaborate fairy tale, making it accessible and enjoyable for both children and adults. In this story, Tolkien introduces the ring motif that becomes central to the trilogy. However, for both Bilbo and the reader, the ring initially appears to have no power beyond granting invisibility. Bilbo seemingly stumbles upon the ring by chance and uses it to assist his thirteen dwarf companions in reclaiming their ancestral treasure from the dragon Smaug. Throughout the trilogy, the ring's former owner, Gollum, and its creator, Sauron, seek to recover it. While The Silmarillion offers a broader, more cosmic background to the trilogy, it is often better appreciated by those already familiar with The Lord of The Rings.

In The Silmarillion, Tolkien delves into the myths and legends that form the foundation of Middle-earth and its inhabitants, with a particular focus on the elves. Much of the content in The Silmarillion is summarized in the trilogy's appendix and through the various songs about the elves and the ancestors of Elrond and Aragorn. The third volume of the trilogy, The Return of the King, recounts the reforging of bonds between the elven and human lines, which are central to the stories in The Silmarillion.

A video adaptation of The Lord of The Rings (Thorn Emi Video, 1978) presents part of the story as an animated cartoon. This film focuses heavily on the violent battle scenes, omitting the literary elements that make the trilogy significant. Despite this, it might help some students navigate Tolkien's complex plot. Directed by Ralph Bakshi and featuring the voices of Christopher Guard as Frodo, William Squire as Gandalf, Michael Scholes as Sam, John Hurt as Aragorn, and Peter Woodthorpe as Gollum, the film disappoints many fans of the novels because it concludes with only the second volume of the trilogy.

The Road Goes Ever On: A Song Cycle consists of poems by Tolkien, set to music by Donald Swann, and was recorded by Caedmon Records in 1967. Additionally, Poems and Songs of Middle Earth were recorded in the same year, featuring performances by William Elven.

'The Ballad of Bilbo Baggins' was recorded by Leonard Nimoy.

An animated adaptation of Lord of the Rings was released in 1978, directed by Ralph Bakshi.

The Lord of the Rings, directed by Peter Jackson, will be released as three separate live-action films starting in 2001. A trailer or preview is available online.

The "Harvard Lampoon" published a parody of The Lord of the Rings titled Bored of the Rings in 1969.

Carpenter, Humphrey. Tolkien: A Biography. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977. In this comprehensive biography of Tolkien, Carpenter explores the various influences that shaped Tolkien's writing, while consciously avoiding literary critiques as much as possible.

Crabbe, Kathryn F. J. R. R. Tolkien. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1981. In the chapter "The Quest as Legend: The Lord of the Rings," Crabbe examines the book through the lenses of tone, heroism, and the concepts of good and evil. She also delves into the significance of different languages within Middle-earth.

Day, David. A Tolkien Bestiary. New York: Ballantine, 1979. The index is frequently used to find entries that may appear under multiple names. This work serves as an illustrated glossary of locations and creatures in Middle-earth.

Flieger, Verlyn. Splintered Light: Logos and Language in Tolkien's World. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1983. Flieger's analysis is based on the premise that The Lord of the Rings cannot be fully appreciated without an understanding of its underlying mythology, positioning the trilogy as a fragment of Middle-earth's ongoing history.

Fonstad, Karen Wynn. The Atlas of Middle-earth. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981. This atlas provides chronologies and maps of Middle-earth during various stages of its creation and development, as well as maps relevant to the journeys of the fellowship, visualizing the narrative's progression.

Isaacs, Neil D., and Rose A. Zimbardo, eds. Tolkien and the Critics: Essays on J. R. R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings." Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. This collection includes fifteen essays, each focusing on a different aspect of the trilogy. Together, they offer a comprehensive overview of the work.

Purtill, Richard L. J. R. R. Tolkien: Myth, Morality and Religion. New York: Harper and Row, 1984. Purtill interprets The Lord of the Rings through the lens of traditional myth concepts, linking these ideas to the moral and spiritual dimensions found in Tolkien's heroes.

Rogers, Deborah Webster, and Ivor A. Rogers. J. R. R. Tolkien. Boston: Twayne, 1980. The authors delve into Tolkien's biography and literary background. Their chapters on "Mythic History" and "The Dawn of the Age of Man" focus on the overarching mythic framework of Middle-earth and the development of its peoples, as depicted in The Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings.

Shippey, T. A. The Road to Middle-earth. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983. Shippey emphasizes those elements of Tolkien's background that contributed to the creation of Middle-earth and its denizens. He places particular emphasis on names and their etymological significance to the characters who bear them.

Tyler, J. E. A. The New Tolkien Companion. New York: St. Martin's, 1979. This guide is likely the most user-friendly resource for characters and locations in Tolkien's Middle-earth tales. It is organized alphabetically, with annotations at the end of each letter section.

Sources
Adams, Robert M., "The Hobbit Habit," in Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 168–175.

Aldritch, Kevin, "The Sense of Time in Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien: A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, HarperCollins, 1999, pp. 86–91.

Auden, W. H., "The Quest Hero," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 40–61.

-----, "At the End of the Quest, Victory," in New York Times Book Review, January 22, 1956, p. 5.

Basney, Lionel, "Myth, History, and Time in The Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 8–18.

Beagle, Peter S., "Tolkien's Magic Ring," in The Tolkien Reader, Ballantine Books, 1966, pp. ix–xv.

Bradley, Marion Zimmer, "Men, Halflings, and Hero-Worship," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 109–127.

Brewer, Derek S., "The Lord of the Rings as Romance," in J. R. R. Tolkien, Scholar and Storyteller: Essays in Memoriam, Cornell University Press, 1979, pp. 249–264.

Caldecott, Stratford, "Over the Chasm of Fire: Christian Heroism in The Silmarillion and The Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien: A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, HarperCollins, 1999, pp. 17–33.

Carpenter, Humphrey, J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography, Allen and Unwin, 1977.

Christensen, Bonniejean, "Gollum's Character Transformation in The Hobbit," in A Tolkien Compass, edited by Jared Lobdell, Open Court, 1975, pp. 9–28.

Coulombe, Charles A., "The Lord of the Rings—A Catholic View," in Tolkien: A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, HarperCollins, 1999, pp. 53–66.

Curry, Patrick, "Modernity in Middle Earth," in Tolkien: A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, HarperCollins, 1999, pp. 34–39.

Dowies, William, "The Gospel of Middle Earth according to J. R. R. Tolkien," in J. R. R. Tolkien, Scholar and Storyteller: Essays in Memoriam, Cornell University Press, 1979, pp. 265–285.

Fairburn, Elwin, "J. R. R. Tolkien: A Mythology for England," in Tolkien: A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, HarperCollins, 1999, pp. 73–85.

Flieger, Verlyn, "Frodo and Aragorn: The Concept of the Hero," in Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives, pp. 40–62.

Fuller, Edmund, "The Lord of the Hobbits," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 17–39.

Gasque, Thomas J., "Tolkien: The Monsters and the Critics," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 151–163.

Grant, Patrick, "Tolkien: Archetype and Word," in Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 87–105.

Guntun, Colin, "A Far-off Gleam of the Gospel: Salvation in Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien: A Celebration, edited by Joseph Pearce, Trafalgar Square, 1999.

Harvey, David, The Song of Middle Earth: J. R. R. Tolkien's Themes, Symbols and Myths, Allen and Unwin, 1985.

Helms, Randel, Tolkien's World, Thames and Hudson, 1974.

Hughes, Daniel, "Pieties and Giant Forms in The Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 72-86.

Huttar, Charles A., "Hell and the City: Tolkien and the Traditions of Western Literature," in A Tolkien Compass, edited by Jared Lobdell, Open Court, 1975, pp. 117-142.

Isaacs, Neil D., "On the Need for Writing Tolkien Criticism," in Tolkien New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 1-7.

-----, "On the Possibility of Writing Tolkien Criticism," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 1-11.

Isaacs, Neil D. and Rose Zimbardo, ed., Tolkien and the Critics, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968.

-----, Tolkien New Critical Perspectives, University of Kentucky Press, 1981.

Jeffrey, David L., "Recovery: Name in The Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 106-116.

Kaufmann, U. Milo, "Aspects of the Paradisiacal in Tolkien's Work," in A Tolkien Compass, edited by Jared Lobdell, Open Court, 1975, pp. 143-152.

Keenan, Hugh T., "The Appeal of The Lord of the Rings: A Struggle for Life," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 62-80.

Kocher, Paul, Master of Middle Earth: The Achievement of J. R. R. Tolkien, Thames and Hudson, 1973.

-----, "Middle Earth: An Imaginary World?" in Tolkien New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 117-132.

Lewis, C. S., "The Dethronement of Power," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 12-16.

Lobdell, Jared, ed., A Tolkien Compass, Open Court, 1975.

Manlove, C. N., Modern Fantasy—Five Studies, Cambridge University Press, 1975.

McGrath, Sean, "The Passion according to Tolkien," in Tolkien A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, Fount, Harper Collins, 1999, pp. 172-182.

Moorman, Charles, "The Shire, Mordor, and Minas Tirith," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 201-217.

Murray, Robert, "J. R. R. Tolkien and the Art of the Parable," in Tolkien A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, Harper Collins, 1999, pp. 40-52.

Nitzsche, Jane Chance, Tolkien's Art, Macmillan Press, 1980.

Noel, Ruth S., The Mythology of Middle Earth, Thames and Hudson, 1977.

Parks, Henry B., "Tolkien and the Critical Approach to Story," in Tolkien New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 133-149.

Pearce, Joseph, "Tolkien and the Catholic Literary Revival," in Tolkien A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, Harper Collins, 1999, pp. 102-140.

----, Tolkien A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, Harper Collins, 1999.

Perkins, Agnes and Helen Hill, "The Corruption of Power," in A Tolkien Compass, edited by Jared Lobdell, Open Court, 1975, pp. 57-68.

Plank, Robert, "‘The Scouring of the Shire': Tolkien's View of Fascism," in A Tolkien Compass, edited by Jared Lobdell, Open Court, 1975, pp. 107-116.

Purtill, Richard L., J. R. R. Tolkien, Myth, Morality, and Religion, Harper and Row, 1984.

Raffel, Burton, "The Lord of the Rings as Literature," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 218–246.

Reilly, Robert J., “Tolkien and the Fairy Story," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 128–150.

Rosebury, Brian, Tolkien: A Critical Assessment, St. Martin's Press, 1992.

Ryan, J. S., "Folktale and the Creation of a Story," in Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University Press of Kentucky, 1981, pp. 19-39.

Sale, Roger, "Tolkien and Frodo Baggins," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 247-288.

Salu, Mary and Robert T. Farrell, J. R. R. Tolkien, Scholar and Storyteller: Essays in Memoriam, Cornell University Press, 1979.

Schall, James V., "On the Reality of Fantasy," in Tolkien A Celebration: Collected Writings on a Literary Legacy, Harper Collins, 1999, pp. 67-72.

Scheps, Walter, “The Fairy Tale Morality of The Lord of the Rings," in A Tolkien Compass, edited by Jared Lobdell, Open Court, 1975, pp. 43-56.

Shippey, T. A., "Creation from Philology in The Lord of the Rings," in J. R. R. Tolkien, Scholar and Storyteller: Essays in Memoriam, Cornell University Press, 1979, pp. 286-316.

----, The Road to Middle-earth, Harper Collins, 1992.

Spacks, Patricia Meyer, "Power and Meaning in The Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 81-99.

Tinkler, John, "Old English in Rohan," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 164-169.

Tolkien, J. R. R., The Silmarillion, edited by Christopher Tolkien, Houghton Mifflin, 1977.

----, Unfinished Tales, edited by Christopher Tolkien, Unwin Paperbacks, 1982.

West, Richard, "The Interlace Structure in The Lord of the Rings," in A Tolkien Compass, edited by Jared Lobdell, Open Court, 1975, pp. 77-94.

West, Richard C., Tolkien Criticism: An Annotated Checklist, Kent State University Press, 1970.

Wilson, Edmund, "Oo, Those Awful Orcs," in Nation, April 14, 1956, p. 182.

Zimbardo, Rose A., "The Medieval-Renaissance Vision of the Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives, pp. 63-71.

----, "Moral Vision in the The Lord of the Rings," in Tolkien and the Critics, edited by Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, University of Notre Dame Press, 1968, pp. 100-108.

Further Reading
Beagle, Peter S., “Tolkien's Magic Ring," in J. R. R. Tolkien, The Tolkien Reader, Ballantine Books, 1966, pp. ix-xv.
This is an excellent, concise, and accessible introduction to The Lord of the Rings by a renowned fantasy author.

Rosebury, Brian, Tolkien: A Critical Assessment, St. Martin's Press, 1992.
An outstanding, in-depth analysis of Tolkien's writing style, serving as a remedy to much of the poor criticism out there.

Shippey, T. A., The Road to Middle Earth, Harper Collins, 1992.
One of the finest works of Tolkien criticism available, it is unparalleled in exploring the sources of The Lord of the Rings and the impact of philology on Tolkien's writing.

Tolkien, J. R. R., "On Fairy Stories," in The Tolkien Reader, Ballantine Books, 1966, pp. 3-82.
Written during the early stages of The Lord of the Rings, this piece offers a critical theory and justification for the trilogy.