“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” utilizes a great deal of descriptive language; an eerie, dreamy tone; and several prominent motifs. The story itself could be considered “sleepy,” as the narrator spends a good amount of time describing the autumnal surroundings and slow nature of Sleepy Hollow. The pacing is slow rather than rushed, emphasizing the significance of the handful of events that play out throughout the story. Since Sleepy Hollow is situated in a valley of plentiful farmland, a great deal of descriptive imagery makes its way into the narrative. It is almost as if readers are transported to the whimsical town with its bountiful charm. Adding to this dreamy tone is the use of foreshadowing. A significant portion of the narrative revolves around the ghost stories of the region. The Headless Horseman who bests Ichabod is mentioned several times throughout, and so is Ichabod’s fascination with the supernatural. Therefore, Ichabod’s fateful journey home does not come as a complete surprise, yet it remains a suspenseful scene.

There are several prominent motifs in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” One is the repetition of images of food. Ichabod is fascinated, even enchanted by food. It is plentiful in the region of Sleepy Hollow, especially in the harvest season. When Ichabod looks around at the autumnal splendor of the countryside, he envisions what delightful treats will come of the products of the local farms. As he surveys the Van Tassel property, he excitedly anticipates the “sumptuous promise of luxurious winter fare.” When he sees pigs around the farmland, he imagines them roasting with apples in their mouths. When he sees pigeons, he pictures them comfortably resting in a pie crust. Ichabod’s appetite manifests itself differently, too: in his pursuit of Katrina. She herself is thought of as a tempting morsel, and Ichabod imagines her serving him treats and hearty meals as his wife. Ichabod’s delight in these fantasies is nearly gluttonous. He is so strongly enchanted by the bounty of the Hudson Valley that he would be willing to give up his position as schoolmaster in a heartbeat—should it raise his station, of course.

Another recurring motif is that of animal descriptions for the main characters. Ichabod Crane is fittingly described as crane-like: tall, spindly, and thin like the bird of his namesake. Cranes are graceful birds, and this is perhaps a reference to Ichabod’s educated demeanor and skill in music and dance. Katrina, for her part, is described as being “plump as a partridge,” yet another bird reference. She is also called a “coquette,” meaning a flirtatious woman, though the word also refers to a hummingbird. While this could be coincidental, it is significant that the narrator paints both Ichabod and Katrina as birds. In this sense, the narrator has grouped them as “birds of a feather” who ought to be together. (With the repetition of food in mind, it is worth considering that Ichabod considers Katrina a bird at times. He envisions real birds swimming in sauce to satisfy his own appetite. Katrina has the potential to satiate his hunger for wealth.) Brom Bones, on the other hand, is compared to a bear. He is large, lumbering, and strong. His amorous pursuit of Katrina is likened to “the gentle caresses and endearments of a bear.” A bear and a partridge do not seem to have much in common, even though Brom and Katrina ultimately marry each other.

Washington Irving first published the story in 1819, not yet fifty years after the American Revolution. New England is full of haunting tales, as the story emphasizes, and many of them are war-related. This would have been well understood by Irving’s readers, as the context of the Revolutionary War was not far off. Though they occurred some 150 years prior, the Salem witch trials are connected to the supernatural backdrop of Sleepy Hollow as well. Ichabod himself is well-versed in the history of witchcraft in New England. His home state of Connecticut is established as having this spooky background. Another important historical aspect is the presence of Dutch settlers. Sleepy Hollow and many other farm valleys in New York have a long history of Dutch influence. These communities are characterized as “untouched” by time, adding to the whimsy of the region. Even when cities industrialize nearby, Sleepy Hollow carries on its business as usual. This, too, represents the context of the changing times.

The setting of Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" plays a critical role in shaping its eerie and enchanting narrative. Predominantly set in the small Dutch community of Sleepy Hollow, near New York's Tarrytown and the Hudson River, the tale unfolds against a backdrop of superstition and vivid natural scenery. Within this realm, both the idyllic Van Tassel farm and the ominous woods contribute significantly to the story's atmosphere and plot.

Sleepy Hollow

Sleepy Hollow is characterized by a pervasive "listless repose," a drowsiness that envelops both the land and its people. This lethargy fosters the community's enhanced imaginations and superstitions, leading them to attribute the area's peculiarities to mystical origins, such as the rituals of an Indigenous chief or a German doctor's enchantments. The residents, deeply rooted in their Dutch heritage, frequently gather around their fireplaces to exchange ghostly tales, with the Headless Horseman being the most infamous specter haunting their narratives. This headless apparition is said to wander near the old church, where legend holds he was buried without his head.

The natural surroundings in Sleepy Hollow convey mood and signal shifts in the narrative. By day, the village is depicted as bright and cheerful, a picturesque scene with vibrant autumn foliage and the lively sounds of wildlife. However, as night falls, the atmosphere becomes foreboding, marked by a "cavernous gloom" cast by gnarled trees and dense grape vines. This shift in scenery foreshadows protagonist Ichabod Crane's fateful encounter with the Headless Horseman, enhancing the story's suspense.

The Van Tassel Farm

In contrast to the eerie ambiance of Sleepy Hollow's woods, the Van Tassel farm is portrayed as an agrarian paradise. Nestled along the Hudson River, the farm is described as a "green, sheltered, fertile nook," complete with a sprawling elm, a bubbling spring, and a babbling brook. The barn, as expansive as a church, is filled with the sounds and sights of farm life: twittering birds, grunting pigs, and a "stately squadron" of geese. "Regiments of turkeys" and guinea fowl roam the barnyard, while the fields boast lush crops of rye, buckwheat, wheat, and corn, accentuated by orchards heavy with fruit.

Inside the farmhouse, opulence is evident in the carefully arranged farming implements, spinning wheel, and butter churn. Ichabod Crane is particularly struck by the "rows of resplendent pewter" and the abundance of items like a huge bag of wool and "linsey-woolsey just from the loom." The decorations include strings of dried apples, peaches, and corn, and the best parlor showcases mahogany furniture, silver, china, and even an ostrich egg—a testament to the Van Tassel family's wealth.

The descriptions of the Van Tassel farm are intentionally exaggerated, employing military terms like "regiments" and "troops" which align with the tall tale nature of the narrative. This depiction underscores the notion of America as a land of plenty, with the Van Tassels' prosperity rooted in the fertile Hudson Valley soil. Ichabod Crane is drawn to this prosperity, viewing the farm and Katrina Van Tassel's inheritance as his ticket to wealth and adventure. He fantasizes about selling the farm to fund travels to "Kentucky, Tennessee, or the Lord knows where," a stark contrast to the stable, contented life of the Dutch settlers.

The interplay between the sleepy, mystical ambiance of Sleepy Hollow and the vibrant, prosperous Van Tassel farm serves to deepen "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow's" narrative. These settings not only frame the supernatural elements but also highlight the divergent aspirations and eventual downfall of Ichabod Crane. Together, they weave a rich tapestry of early American life, where folklore and reality intertwine seamlessly.

The Dutch in New York

New York was initially settled by the Dutch, originating from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1609, Henry Hudson, mentioned as “Master Hendrick Hudson” in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” navigated from what is now New York City to Albany along the river that the Dutch called the Tappan Zee, now known as the Hudson River. The Tappan Zee Bridge in New York City honors his journey. Though Hudson was British by birth, he was employed by the Dutch East India Company. Following his explorations, the Netherlands claimed the area now known as New York. The first Dutch settlers arrived in present-day New York City in 1624. Despite the region eventually coming under British and then American control, Dutch influence remained strong in New York during Irving’s time.

Stereotypes of the Dutch, like those of any ethnic group, were widespread. They were often depicted as jolly, prosperous, well-fed, and somewhat foolish. Irving humorously portrayed Dutchmen in A History of New York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, authored by the fictional Diedrich Knickerbocker. Knickerbocker is also credited as the source of this story, using these stereotypes comically in characters like Baltus Van Tassel, his daughter Katrina, and their superstitious and somewhat pompous neighbors. It's worth noting that stereotypical views also existed about Yankees, or people of Anglo-Saxon descent, who were often seen—like Ichabod Crane—as vain, overeducated, sophisticated, and lacking in practical sense.

Irving utilized and subtly contributed to the folklore surrounding Dutch people. By creating the character Diedrich Knickerbocker, he invented the name “Knickerbocker” to be humorous yet convincingly Dutch. As Irving’s works gained popularity, the name became associated with Dutch descendants. Consequently, Dutch people were called “knickerbockers,” and the baggy pants gathered below the knee worn by men were named “knickerbockers” and later “knickers.” While knickers fell out of fashion after the 1930s, the name persists in the professional basketball team, the New York Knicks, officially known as the Knickerbockers.

The New American Fiction

Irving lived and wrote during a pivotal moment in American literary history when there was a growing call for a distinct national literature. Before this period, most writings from the colonies, and later from the new nation, were predominantly religious or historical, closely resembling similar works from Europe. Ichabod Crane’s favorite author, Cotton Mather (1663–1728), was a preacher and political writer known for his rational and stern treatises on contemporary issues. His writings on witchcraft, inspired by the Salem witch trials, were neither imaginative nor meant to entertain or convey personal experiences or emotions. For instance, in The History of New England Witchcraft, which Daniel Hoffman identifies as Magnalia Christi Americana (1702), Mather presented case histories of what he believed to be real and Satanic events, aiming to inform readers and argue against the witch trials.

By the late eighteenth century, there was a rising demand for American characters and themes, leading to the emergence of plays that met this need. The popularity of novels imported from England spurred the beginnings of American novels and sparked serious discussions about what types of literature would best reflect the values of a democratic society. Irving was among the first American writers with both the talent and determination to craft American fiction, yet he had no American literary models to follow.

The Sketch Book, written in England, comprises over thirty sketches or stories, with most focusing on English life and characters. “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” was notable, though not unique, for being set in the United States. To create the story, Irving drew heavily from German legends of Ruebezahl found in the Volksmaerchen der Deutschen, relocating the basic plot and characters to Upstate New York. This work marked a beginning. The Sketch Book became the first book by an American author to sell well in England, proving that such success was achievable.

For over a century, historians and critics have debated whether Irving invented the short story with “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle.” Some argue that these works are not true stories but merely tales. Regardless of whether he was an innovator or an adapter, a storyteller or a tale writer, Irving broadened the scope of American literature and paved the way for the explosion of new forms and styles that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century.

"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," a celebrated work by Washington Irving, is a tale renowned for its multilayered narrative structure and vibrant imagery. The intricate levels of narration add layers of complexity to the storytelling, while vivid imagery paints a picture of abundance, juxtaposing the richness of the landscape against the protagonist's lean existence. Through both narrative technique and imagery, Irving crafts a humorous and compelling portrait of early American life.

Narrative Complexity

"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" features a convoluted narrative structure, with a labyrinthine network of storytellers and perspectives. At the helm is Washington Irving, author of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent., who introduces Geoffrey Crayon as a fictional compiler of tales. Within this structure, Diedrich Knickerbocker emerges as the character who chronicled "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," claiming to have transcribed it as told by a "pleasant, shabby, gentlemanly old fellow." This indirect narration creates a story within a story within a story, where Ichabod Crane is ultimately a victim of tales told and retold, particularly those concerning a headless horseman.

The multiplicity of narrators also brings with it a profound unreliability. Knickerbocker insists he has faithfully recounted the legend as he heard it, a dubious claim given the intricate details of the tale and his limited exposure to it. Similarly, the old gentleman narrator begins with a great show of attempting to stick to the truth but quickly admits to the story's extravagance, confessing disbelief in half of it. This unreliability runs deep in Sleepy Hollow's culture, where the inhabitants indulge in fanciful storytelling, enhancing tales with fiction and invariably casting themselves as heroes of their own narratives. Such storytelling practices ensure that the reader remains emotionally detached from the characters, never forging a deep connection with Ichabod Crane or the events that unfold.

Because the narrators mystify rather than clarify, they prevent readers from developing sympathy or antipathy towards Crane. Instead, the focus remains on humor, as the story unfolds with a lighthearted tone despite some underlying trickery. This emotional distance serves to underscore the comedic nature of the tale, a key factor in its enduring popularity.

Vivid Imagery

Irving's tale is also distinguished by its lush imagery, which immerses readers in the vibrant setting of Sleepy Hollow. The story opens with a dream-like depiction of the landscape, setting a tone that shifts to vivid, detailed descriptions as the focus narrows on Ichabod Crane's experiences. As Crane makes his way home in the evening, the narrator meticulously catalogs every creature that startles him—from the whippoorwill to the screech-owl, painting a lively scene that plays into Crane’s vivid fears.

Crane's perception is further shaped by the rich imagery of abundance. His eye lingers greedily over the Van Tassel barn, which bursts with farm treasures. To him, each animal is a potential feast, as he imagines the pigs roasted or the pigeons snug in pies. The Van Tassel home, filled with tools and the bounty of the earth, captivates Crane, who sees the household's wealth as a gateway to his own prosperity. This obsession with abundance is underscored by the detailed inventory of household goods and produce, from corn and dried fruits to vibrant red peppers.

Literary scholars such as William Hedges and Mary Weatherspoon Bowden highlight the contrast between the plenitude of Sleepy Hollow and Crane's sparse existence. Hedges notes the story's method of "heaping up images of abundance" to underscore Ichabod's lean physical and spiritual state. Meanwhile, Bowden sees the vivid depictions of autumn harvests and festive scenes as a celebration of America's richness and potential. The imagery speaks to the early 19th-century American experience, capturing a nation rich in resources, a theme that resonated with Irving's contemporaries and fascinated British audiences, for whom such wilderness was long domesticated.

In "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," Washington Irving expertly weaves complex narrative layers and rich imagery to craft a story that is both a humorous critique of human nature and a vivid celebration of the American landscape. Through its multidimensional approach, the tale continues to enchant readers, evoking a sense of wonder and humor intertwined with the richness of early American life.

Washington Irving’s tale, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, encapsulates a fascinating interplay of cultural themes and meanings, articulated through the voice of Diedrich Knickerbocker, a character representing Irving's playful satire of old Dutch New Yorkers. The story, first appearing in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (1819–1820), delves into the complexities of cultural clashes between industrious Yankees and the cunning Dutch settlers of New York.

A notable postscript, allegedly penned by the dry-witted Knickerbocker, reveals that the story was narrated by an elderly gentleman whose appearance bore a marked resemblance to Ichabod Crane. When asked to distill a moral from the tale, this raconteur quipped, "He that runs races with goblin troopers is likely to have rough riding of it." This pithy statement distills a central theme in Irving’s work: the consequences of cultural collisions and personal ambitions meeting supernatural curiosities.

The narrative does not champion clear moral superiority among its characters. Ichabod Crane, for example, embodies the Yankee spirit, yet his educational edge over the Dutch children he teaches is modest. His intentions toward Katrina Van Tassel appear more driven by her father's wealth than genuine affection. On the other hand, Brom Bones, Ichabod’s rival, represents the Dutch community's steadfastness and resourcefulness. Recognizing Ichabod as a threat, Brom devises a plan to protect his interests, illustrating his own brand of cunning and resolve.

In this cultural and personal rivalry, neither Ichabod nor Brom emerges as a paragon of virtue. Katrina herself serves as an enigmatic figure, lacking in definitive allure or loyalty, which further complicates the moral landscape of the story. Hence, Irving's tale unfolds as a nuanced exploration of human motivations and the thin line between folklore and reality, a testament to the enduring complexity of cultural intersections.

1810: Irving’s hometown, New York City, is a bustling metropolitan hub with a population of 80,000. The total population of the United States stands at 7,239,881.

1990: New York City’s population has grown to 7,322,564.

1810s: Women's bodies are considered attractive if they are, like Katrina Van Tassel’s, “plump as a partridge.” Many women believe it is improper to be so thin that their bones are visible.

1990s: Society expects women to be slim, with defined cheekbones being a standard of beauty.

1810s: In rural villages, few people are educated enough to teach. Most residents cannot read or write, so teachers usually come from urban areas.

1990s: Adults who are illiterate face significant challenges in managing everyday tasks.

1810s: Veterans of the American Revolution are still alive and often share both true and embellished stories of their wartime experiences at social gatherings.

1990s: Veterans of the Korean and Vietnam wars generally remain quiet about their experiences.

Sources

Bowden, Mary Weatherspoon. Washington Irving, Boston: Twayne, 1981, p. 72.

Giamatti, A. Bartlett. The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966, pp. 3, 6, 34, 126-27.

Hedges, William L. Washington Irving: An American Study, 1802–1832, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965, p. 142.

Hoffman, Daniel G. Form and Fable in American Fiction, New York: Oxford University Press, 1961.

“Irving’s Use of American Folklore in ‘The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,’” in PMLA, Vol. 68, June, 1953, pp. 425–435.

Jeffrey, Francis. Review of The Sketch Book, in Edinburgh Review, Vol. 34, August, 1820, pp. 160–76.

Kolodny, Annette. The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975, pp. 68–70.

Leary, Lewis. “Washington Irving and the Comic Imagination,” in The Comic Imagination in American Literature, ed.

Louis D. Rubin. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1973, pp. 63–76.

Martin, Terence. “Rip, Ichabod, and the American Imagination,” in American Literature, Vol. 31, May, 1959, pp. 137–149.

Pataj, Edward F. “Washington Irving’s Ichabod Crane: American Narcissus,” in American Imago, Vol. 38, Spring, 1981, pp. 127–35.

Plummer, Laura, and Michael Nelson. “‘Girls Can Take Care of Themselves’; Gender and Storytelling in Washington Irving’s ‘The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,’” in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 30, 1993, pp. 175-84.

Pochmann, Henry A. “Irving’s German Tour and Its Influence on His Tales,” in PMLA, Vol. 45, December, 1930, pp. 1150–87.

“Irving’s German Sources in The Sketch Book,” in Studies in Philology, Vol. 27, July, 1930, pp. 477–507.

Theocritus. “Idyll VII,” in The Greek Bucolic Poets, translated by J. E. Edmonds, Cambridge, Mass.: Loeb Library, 1938, lines 135–46.

von Frank, Albert J. “The Man That Corrupted Sleepy Hollow,” in Studies in American Fiction, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1987, pp. 129–143.

Further Reading

Aderman, Ralph M., ed. Critical Essays on Washington Irving, Boston: G. K. Hall, 1990.
A collection of Irving criticism that includes early nineteenth-century reviews and twentieth-century scholarly articles.

Bowden, Edwin T. Washington Irving: Bibliography, Boston: Twayne, 1989.
Volume 30 in The Complete Works of Washington Irving, this is the most comprehensive and current bibliography available.

Bowden, Mary Weatherspoon. Washington Irving, Boston: Twayne, 1981.
An excellent introduction for general readers, covering each of Irving’s major works in chronological order.

Hedges, William L. Washington Irving: An American Study, 1802–1832, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965.
Provides insightful literary analysis of Irving’s major works, particularly those written before his return to the United States.

Tuttleton, James W., ed. Washington Irving: The Critical Reaction, New York: AMS Press, 1993.
Contains sixteen critical essays on Irving’s work, including three that directly address “Sleepy Hollow” and two that contextualize his early works, such as The Sketch Book.

Wagenknecht, Edward. Washington Irving: Moderation Displayed, New York: Oxford University Press, 1962.
An accessible biography and critical overview that highlights Irving’s prominence during his lifetime as the United States’ most important writer.

Bibliography

Primary Work

Irving, Washington. The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. 1819820. Edited by Haskell Springer. Boston: Twayne, 1978.

Secondary Works

Fox, Dixon Ryan. Yankees and Yorkers. New York: New York University Press, 1940.

Myers, Andrew B., ed. A Century of Commentary on the Works of Washington Irving, 1860974. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Restorations, 1976.

Pochmann, Henry A. “Irving’s German Sources in The Sketch Book.” Studies in Philology 27 (1930): 47707.

Richardson, Judith. Possessions: The History and Uses of Haunting in the Hudson Valley. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003.

Ringe, Donald A. American Gothic: Imagination and Reason in Nineteenth-Century Fiction. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1982.

Rubin-Dorsky, Jeffrey. Adrift in the Old World: The Psychological Pilgrimage of Washington Irving. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.

Thompson, G. R. “Washington Irving and the American Ghost Story.” In The Haunted Dusk: American Supernatural Fiction 1820–1920, edited by John W. Crowley, Charles L. Crow, and Howard Kerr, pp. 116. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1983.

Williams, Stanley T. The Life of Washington Irving. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1935.

“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” has been narrated by Donada Peters as part of a five-hour audiotape collection titled Rip Van Winkle and Other Stories. This set is available through Books on Tape, Inc. Additionally, the story can be found as a musical dramatization on audiocassette, which has garnered excellent reviews. Produced by Reed Publishing USA in 1993, this version is included in the Carousel Classics series.

The story is also offered on videocassette. Tales of Washington Irving (1987) is a videocassette featuring animated films from the 1970s. Distributed by MGM/UA Home Video, this forty-eight-minute tape includes “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle,” and showcases the voice talents of Mel Blanc and other notable actors. Another videocassette, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving, features live actors and is set in a recreated early American-Dutch village. Published by Guidance Associates, it aims to encourage students to read the story.

Among the numerous film adaptations, two stand out. Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales and Legends: The Legend of Sleepy Hollow is a fifty-two-minute film starring Ed Begley Jr. and distributed by Trimark. In November 1999, Tim Burton directed a major motion picture titled Sleepy Hollow, with Johnny Depp portraying Ichabod Crane.