The Legend of Sleepy Hollow Analysis
- “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” begins with a lavish description of the Hudson Valley and Sleepy Hollow, a charming hamlet populated by Dutch farmers. Irving contrasts the hearty residents of Sleepy Hollow with the ungainly Connecticut schoolteacher Ichabod Crane, suggesting a broader thematic tension between country and city.
- The story has been captivating readers since its publication in 1820. Irving plays with the traditional elements of horror stories to create one of the most enduring figures in American literature: the Headless Horseman. He leaves readers to wonder if the Headless Horseman is real or merely Brom Bones in disguise.
Analysis
“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” utilizes a great deal of descriptive language; an eerie, dreamy tone; and several prominent motifs. The story itself could be considered “sleepy,” as the narrator spends a good amount of time describing the autumnal surroundings and slow nature of Sleepy Hollow. The pacing is slow rather than rushed, emphasizing the significance of the handful of events that play out throughout the story. Since Sleepy Hollow is situated in a valley of plentiful farmland, a great deal of descriptive imagery makes its way into the narrative. It is almost as if readers are transported to the whimsical town with its bountiful charm. Adding to this dreamy tone is the use of foreshadowing. A significant portion of the narrative revolves around the ghost stories of the region. The Headless Horseman who bests Ichabod is mentioned several times throughout, and so is Ichabod’s fascination with the supernatural. Therefore, Ichabod’s fateful journey home does not come as a complete surprise, yet it remains a suspenseful scene.
There are several prominent motifs in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” One is the repetition of images of food. Ichabod is fascinated, even enchanted by food. It is plentiful in the region of Sleepy Hollow, especially in the harvest season. When Ichabod looks around at the autumnal splendor of the countryside, he envisions what delightful treats will come of the products of the local farms. As he surveys the Van Tassel property, he excitedly anticipates the “sumptuous promise of luxurious winter fare.” When he sees pigs around the farmland, he imagines them roasting with apples in their mouths. When he sees pigeons, he pictures them comfortably resting in a pie crust. Ichabod’s appetite manifests itself differently, too: in his pursuit of Katrina. She herself is thought of as a tempting morsel, and Ichabod imagines her serving him treats and hearty meals as his wife. Ichabod’s delight in these fantasies is nearly gluttonous. He is so strongly enchanted by the bounty of the Hudson Valley that he would be willing to give up his position as schoolmaster in a heartbeat—should it raise his station, of course.
Another recurring motif is that of animal descriptions for the main characters. Ichabod Crane is fittingly described as crane-like: tall, spindly, and thin like the bird of his namesake. Cranes are graceful birds, and this is perhaps a reference to Ichabod’s educated demeanor and skill in music and dance. Katrina, for her part, is described as being “plump as a partridge,” yet another bird reference. She is also called a “coquette,” meaning a flirtatious woman, though the word also refers to a hummingbird. While this could be coincidental, it is significant that the narrator paints both Ichabod and Katrina as birds. In this sense, the narrator has grouped them as “birds of a feather” who ought to be together. (With the repetition of food in mind, it is worth considering that Ichabod considers Katrina a bird at times. He envisions real birds swimming in sauce to satisfy his own appetite. Katrina has the potential to satiate his hunger for wealth.) Brom Bones, on the other hand, is compared to a bear. He is large, lumbering, and strong. His amorous pursuit of Katrina is likened to “the gentle caresses and endearments of a bear.” A bear and a partridge do not seem to have much in common, even though Brom and Katrina ultimately marry each other.
Washington Irving first published the story in 1819, not yet fifty years after the American Revolution. New England is full of haunting tales, as the story emphasizes, and many of them are war-related. This would have been well understood by Irving’s readers, as the context of the Revolutionary War was not far off. Though they occurred some 150 years prior, the Salem witch trials are connected to the supernatural backdrop of Sleepy Hollow as well. Ichabod himself is well-versed in the history of witchcraft in New England. His home state of Connecticut is established as having this spooky background. Another important historical aspect is the presence of Dutch settlers. Sleepy Hollow and many other farm valleys in New York have a long history of Dutch influence. These communities are characterized as “untouched” by time, adding to the whimsy of the region. Even when cities industrialize nearby, Sleepy Hollow carries on its business as usual. This, too, represents the context of the changing times.
Setting
The setting of Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" plays a critical role in shaping its eerie and enchanting narrative. Predominantly set in the small Dutch community of Sleepy Hollow, near New York's Tarrytown and the Hudson River, the tale unfolds against a backdrop of superstition and vivid natural scenery. Within this realm, both the idyllic Van Tassel farm and the ominous woods contribute significantly to the story's atmosphere and plot.
Sleepy Hollow
Sleepy Hollow is characterized by a pervasive "listless repose," a drowsiness that envelops both the land and its people. This lethargy fosters the community's enhanced imaginations and superstitions, leading them to attribute the area's peculiarities to mystical origins, such as the rituals of an Indigenous chief or a German doctor's enchantments. The residents, deeply rooted in their Dutch heritage, frequently gather around their fireplaces to exchange ghostly tales, with the Headless Horseman being the most infamous specter haunting their narratives. This headless apparition is said to wander near the old church, where legend holds he was buried without his head.
The natural surroundings in Sleepy Hollow convey mood and signal shifts in the narrative. By day, the village is depicted as bright and cheerful, a picturesque scene with vibrant autumn foliage and the lively sounds of wildlife. However, as night falls, the atmosphere becomes foreboding, marked by a "cavernous gloom" cast by gnarled trees and dense grape vines. This shift in scenery foreshadows protagonist Ichabod Crane's fateful encounter with the Headless Horseman, enhancing the story's suspense.
The Van Tassel Farm
In contrast to the eerie ambiance of Sleepy Hollow's woods, the Van Tassel farm is portrayed as an agrarian paradise. Nestled along the Hudson River, the farm is described as a "green, sheltered, fertile nook," complete with a sprawling elm, a bubbling spring, and a babbling brook. The barn, as expansive as a church, is filled with the sounds and sights of farm life: twittering birds, grunting pigs, and a "stately squadron" of geese. "Regiments of turkeys" and guinea fowl roam the barnyard, while the fields boast lush crops of rye, buckwheat, wheat, and corn, accentuated by orchards heavy with fruit.
Inside the farmhouse, opulence is evident in the carefully arranged farming implements, spinning wheel, and butter churn. Ichabod Crane is particularly struck by the "rows of resplendent pewter" and the abundance of items like a huge bag of wool and "linsey-woolsey just from the loom." The decorations include strings of dried apples, peaches, and corn, and the best parlor showcases mahogany furniture, silver, china, and even an ostrich egg—a testament to the Van Tassel family's wealth.
The descriptions of the Van Tassel farm are intentionally exaggerated, employing military terms like "regiments" and "troops" which align with the tall tale nature of the narrative. This depiction underscores the notion of America as a land of plenty, with the Van Tassels' prosperity rooted in the fertile Hudson Valley soil. Ichabod Crane is drawn to this prosperity, viewing the farm and Katrina Van Tassel's inheritance as his ticket to wealth and adventure. He fantasizes about selling the farm to fund travels to "Kentucky, Tennessee, or the Lord knows where," a stark contrast to the stable, contented life of the Dutch settlers.
The interplay between the sleepy, mystical ambiance of Sleepy Hollow and the vibrant, prosperous Van Tassel farm serves to deepen "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow's" narrative. These settings not only frame the supernatural elements but also highlight the divergent aspirations and eventual downfall of Ichabod Crane. Together, they weave a rich tapestry of early American life, where folklore and reality intertwine seamlessly.
Expert Q&A
How did Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow get their names?
Tarrytown got its name from local housewives who noted that their husbands would "tarry" at the village tavern on market days. Sleepy Hollow was named for its tranquil atmosphere and the dreamy, listless character of its residents, as described by Washington Irving. Tarrytown is a village near the Hudson River, historically inhabited by Native Americans and later settled by the Dutch in the 17th century.
Why are there more ghost stories in a long-settled village in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow"?
There are more ghost stories in Sleepy Hollow due to its long-settled nature and unique history. Unlike the newer, transient American settlements, Sleepy Hollow's residents have deep roots and have passed down tales for generations. The village's seclusion and "drowsy, dreamy influence," along with its lore of being bewitched and used for powwows, contribute to its abundance of ghost stories. This cultural and historical continuity fosters a rich tradition of supernatural legends.
Why is the village in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" named Sleepy Hollow?
What year does "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" take place?
"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" is generally set in 1790, thirty years before its 1820 publication, aligning with the story's themes of superstition prevalent before the Enlightenment's completion. Although Washington Irving does not specify an exact year, the narrative suggests events occur after the American Revolutionary War, which ended in 1783. The setting is inferred from the story's reference to "thirty years hence" and the mention of a Hessian soldier from the war.
The setting in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" reflects America's changing history and culture
The setting in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" reflects America's changing history and culture by showcasing the transition from old-world Dutch influences to the emerging American identity. The sleepy, superstitious village of Sleepy Hollow contrasts with the bustling, progressive cities, highlighting the tension between tradition and modernization during the early 19th century.
The geographical features and location of Sleepy Hollow in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow"
Sleepy Hollow is described as a secluded glen near Tarrytown, New York, characterized by its tranquil and eerie atmosphere. The area is surrounded by rolling hills, dense forests, and a winding river, contributing to its mysterious and haunting ambiance. This secluded and picturesque setting enhances the supernatural elements of the story.
Historical Context
The Dutch in New York
New York was initially settled by the Dutch, originating from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1609, Henry Hudson, mentioned as “Master Hendrick Hudson” in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” navigated from what is now New York City to Albany along the river that the Dutch called the Tappan Zee, now known as the Hudson River. The Tappan Zee Bridge in New York City honors his journey. Though Hudson was British by birth, he was employed by the Dutch East India Company. Following his explorations, the Netherlands claimed the area now known as New York. The first Dutch settlers arrived in present-day New York City in 1624. Despite the region eventually coming under British and then American control, Dutch influence remained strong in New York during Irving’s time.
Stereotypes of the Dutch, like those of any ethnic group, were widespread. They were often depicted as jolly, prosperous, well-fed, and somewhat foolish. Irving humorously portrayed Dutchmen in A History of New York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, authored by the fictional Diedrich Knickerbocker. Knickerbocker is also credited as the source of this story, using these stereotypes comically in characters like Baltus Van Tassel, his daughter Katrina, and their superstitious and somewhat pompous neighbors. It's worth noting that stereotypical views also existed about Yankees, or people of Anglo-Saxon descent, who were often seen—like Ichabod Crane—as vain, overeducated, sophisticated, and lacking in practical sense.
Irving utilized and subtly contributed to the folklore surrounding Dutch people. By creating the character Diedrich Knickerbocker, he invented the name “Knickerbocker” to be humorous yet convincingly Dutch. As Irving’s works gained popularity, the name became associated with Dutch descendants. Consequently, Dutch people were called “knickerbockers,” and the baggy pants gathered below the knee worn by men were named “knickerbockers” and later “knickers.” While knickers fell out of fashion after the 1930s, the name persists in the professional basketball team, the New York Knicks, officially known as the Knickerbockers.
The New American Fiction
Irving lived and wrote during a pivotal moment in American literary history when there was a growing call for a distinct national literature. Before this period, most writings from the colonies, and later from the new nation, were predominantly religious or historical, closely resembling similar works from Europe. Ichabod Crane’s favorite author, Cotton Mather (1663–1728), was a preacher and political writer known for his rational and stern treatises on contemporary issues. His writings on witchcraft, inspired by the Salem witch trials, were neither imaginative nor meant to entertain or convey personal experiences or emotions. For instance, in The History of New England Witchcraft, which Daniel Hoffman identifies as Magnalia Christi Americana (1702), Mather presented case histories of what he believed to be real and Satanic events, aiming to inform readers and argue against the witch trials.
By the late eighteenth century, there was a rising demand for American characters and themes, leading to the emergence of plays that met this need. The popularity of novels imported from England spurred the beginnings of American novels and sparked serious discussions about what types of literature would best reflect the values of a democratic society. Irving was among the first American writers with both the talent and determination to craft American fiction, yet he had no American literary models to follow.
The Sketch Book, written in England, comprises over thirty sketches or stories, with most focusing on English life and characters. “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” was notable, though not unique, for being set in the United States. To create the story, Irving drew heavily from German legends of Ruebezahl found in the Volksmaerchen der Deutschen, relocating the basic plot and characters to Upstate New York. This work marked a beginning. The Sketch Book became the first book by an American author to sell well in England, proving that such success was achievable.
For over a century, historians and critics have debated whether Irving invented the short story with “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle.” Some argue that these works are not true stories but merely tales. Regardless of whether he was an innovator or an adapter, a storyteller or a tale writer, Irving broadened the scope of American literature and paved the way for the explosion of new forms and styles that emerged in the mid-nineteenth century.
Expert Q&A
Irving's use of American folklore, Romantic forms, and historical elements in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow."
Irving combines American folklore, Romantic forms, and historical elements in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" to create a richly textured narrative. He draws on local ghost stories, employs Romantic themes of nature and the supernatural, and sets the tale in a historically accurate early American village, blending these elements to enhance the story's authenticity and eerie atmosphere.
Style and Technique
"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," a celebrated work by Washington Irving, is a tale renowned for its multilayered narrative structure and vibrant imagery. The intricate levels of narration add layers of complexity to the storytelling, while vivid imagery paints a picture of abundance, juxtaposing the richness of the landscape against the protagonist's lean existence. Through both narrative technique and imagery, Irving crafts a humorous and compelling portrait of early American life.
Narrative Complexity
"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" features a convoluted narrative structure, with a labyrinthine network of storytellers and perspectives. At the helm is Washington Irving, author of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent., who introduces Geoffrey Crayon as a fictional compiler of tales. Within this structure, Diedrich Knickerbocker emerges as the character who chronicled "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," claiming to have transcribed it as told by a "pleasant, shabby, gentlemanly old fellow." This indirect narration creates a story within a story within a story, where Ichabod Crane is ultimately a victim of tales told and retold, particularly those concerning a headless horseman.
The multiplicity of narrators also brings with it a profound unreliability. Knickerbocker insists he has faithfully recounted the legend as he heard it, a dubious claim given the intricate details of the tale and his limited exposure to it. Similarly, the old gentleman narrator begins with a great show of attempting to stick to the truth but quickly admits to the story's extravagance, confessing disbelief in half of it. This unreliability runs deep in Sleepy Hollow's culture, where the inhabitants indulge in fanciful storytelling, enhancing tales with fiction and invariably casting themselves as heroes of their own narratives. Such storytelling practices ensure that the reader remains emotionally detached from the characters, never forging a deep connection with Ichabod Crane or the events that unfold.
Because the narrators mystify rather than clarify, they prevent readers from developing sympathy or antipathy towards Crane. Instead, the focus remains on humor, as the story unfolds with a lighthearted tone despite some underlying trickery. This emotional distance serves to underscore the comedic nature of the tale, a key factor in its enduring popularity.
Vivid Imagery
Irving's tale is also distinguished by its lush imagery, which immerses readers in the vibrant setting of Sleepy Hollow. The story opens with a dream-like depiction of the landscape, setting a tone that shifts to vivid, detailed descriptions as the focus narrows on Ichabod Crane's experiences. As Crane makes his way home in the evening, the narrator meticulously catalogs every creature that startles him—from the whippoorwill to the screech-owl, painting a lively scene that plays into Crane’s vivid fears.
Crane's perception is further shaped by the rich imagery of abundance. His eye lingers greedily over the Van Tassel barn, which bursts with farm treasures. To him, each animal is a potential feast, as he imagines the pigs roasted or the pigeons snug in pies. The Van Tassel home, filled with tools and the bounty of the earth, captivates Crane, who sees the household's wealth as a gateway to his own prosperity. This obsession with abundance is underscored by the detailed inventory of household goods and produce, from corn and dried fruits to vibrant red peppers.
Literary scholars such as William Hedges and Mary Weatherspoon Bowden highlight the contrast between the plenitude of Sleepy Hollow and Crane's sparse existence. Hedges notes the story's method of "heaping up images of abundance" to underscore Ichabod's lean physical and spiritual state. Meanwhile, Bowden sees the vivid depictions of autumn harvests and festive scenes as a celebration of America's richness and potential. The imagery speaks to the early 19th-century American experience, capturing a nation rich in resources, a theme that resonated with Irving's contemporaries and fascinated British audiences, for whom such wilderness was long domesticated.
In "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," Washington Irving expertly weaves complex narrative layers and rich imagery to craft a story that is both a humorous critique of human nature and a vivid celebration of the American landscape. Through its multidimensional approach, the tale continues to enchant readers, evoking a sense of wonder and humor intertwined with the richness of early American life.
Expert Q&A
What tone does the phrase "worthy wight" suggest about Crane in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow"?
Wight is an archaic word, and in paragraph 8 of "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," Irving uses it to both underscore that his story is from "the old days" and as a way of gently producing a mocking tone as he makes fun of Icabod and the alleged folktale in which he appears.
How does the chatty narrator's voice contribute to the overall meaning of the text?
The chatty narrator in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" creates ironic distance by contrasting the urbane sophistication of Washington Irving with the simple, superstitious characters like Ichabod Crane. Through a familiar, knowing tone, the narrator subtly mocks Ichabod's limited learning and the exaggerated wealth of Baltus Van Tassel, inviting readers to view the story as comic folklore rather than horror. This narrative style enhances the humorous and satirical elements of the tale.
In "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," what mood is created through the setting's description?
The setting in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" creates a mood of mystery and wonder. Washington Irving uses the geographical landscape, history, and atmosphere to evoke curiosity. The name "Sleepy Hollow" suggests seclusion and laziness of mind, enhancing the eerie mood. The introductory verse with words like "drowsy" and "dreams" casts a spell on the reader, while the summer setting contrasts with the mysterious events, indicating that things are not always as they seem.
Describe the use of point of view, irony, and tone in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow."
The story employs a layered point of view through Diedrich Knickerbocker and Geoffrey Crayon, creating a distancing effect. Irony and a mock-heroic tone are central, as Ichabod Crane is humorously compared to epic heroes, highlighting his greed rather than romance. The narrative's light-hearted mockery, such as Crane's focus on food over female beauty, undercuts any serious heroic or romantic elements, making the tale essentially comic despite its gothic elements.
How does "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and Irving's writing style exhibit both Classical and Romantic elements?
Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" blends Classical and Romantic elements. The Classical aspects include a moral lesson about Ichabod's greed, and a realistic setting in post-Revolution America. Romantic traits are seen in Irving's poetic descriptions of nature and the supernatural theme of the Headless Horseman. This supernatural ambiguity, combined with Romantic elements like the emphasis on nature, aligns with the Romantic movement's focus on mystery and the irrational.
Themes and Meanings
Washington Irving’s tale, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, encapsulates a fascinating interplay of cultural themes and meanings, articulated through the voice of Diedrich Knickerbocker, a character representing Irving's playful satire of old Dutch New Yorkers. The story, first appearing in The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (1819–1820), delves into the complexities of cultural clashes between industrious Yankees and the cunning Dutch settlers of New York.
A notable postscript, allegedly penned by the dry-witted Knickerbocker, reveals that the story was narrated by an elderly gentleman whose appearance bore a marked resemblance to Ichabod Crane. When asked to distill a moral from the tale, this raconteur quipped, "He that runs races with goblin troopers is likely to have rough riding of it." This pithy statement distills a central theme in Irving’s work: the consequences of cultural collisions and personal ambitions meeting supernatural curiosities.
The narrative does not champion clear moral superiority among its characters. Ichabod Crane, for example, embodies the Yankee spirit, yet his educational edge over the Dutch children he teaches is modest. His intentions toward Katrina Van Tassel appear more driven by her father's wealth than genuine affection. On the other hand, Brom Bones, Ichabod’s rival, represents the Dutch community's steadfastness and resourcefulness. Recognizing Ichabod as a threat, Brom devises a plan to protect his interests, illustrating his own brand of cunning and resolve.
In this cultural and personal rivalry, neither Ichabod nor Brom emerges as a paragon of virtue. Katrina herself serves as an enigmatic figure, lacking in definitive allure or loyalty, which further complicates the moral landscape of the story. Hence, Irving's tale unfolds as a nuanced exploration of human motivations and the thin line between folklore and reality, a testament to the enduring complexity of cultural intersections.
Compare and Contrast
1810: Irving’s hometown, New York City, is a bustling metropolitan hub with a population of 80,000. The total population of the United States stands at 7,239,881.
1990: New York City’s population has grown to 7,322,564.
1810s: Women's bodies are considered attractive if they are, like Katrina Van Tassel’s, “plump as a partridge.” Many women believe it is improper to be so thin that their bones are visible.
1990s: Society expects women to be slim, with defined cheekbones being a standard of beauty.
1810s: In rural villages, few people are educated enough to teach. Most residents cannot read or write, so teachers usually come from urban areas.
1990s: Adults who are illiterate face significant challenges in managing everyday tasks.
1810s: Veterans of the American Revolution are still alive and often share both true and embellished stories of their wartime experiences at social gatherings.
1990s: Veterans of the Korean and Vietnam wars generally remain quiet about their experiences.
Bibliography
Sources
Bowden, Mary Weatherspoon. Washington Irving, Boston: Twayne, 1981, p. 72.
Giamatti, A. Bartlett. The Earthly Paradise and the Renaissance Epic, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966, pp. 3, 6, 34, 126-27.
Hedges, William L. Washington Irving: An American Study, 1802–1832, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965, p. 142.
Hoffman, Daniel G. Form and Fable in American Fiction, New York: Oxford University Press, 1961.
“Irving’s Use of American Folklore in ‘The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,’” in PMLA, Vol. 68, June, 1953, pp. 425–435.
Jeffrey, Francis. Review of The Sketch Book, in Edinburgh Review, Vol. 34, August, 1820, pp. 160–76.
Kolodny, Annette. The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975, pp. 68–70.
Leary, Lewis. “Washington Irving and the Comic Imagination,” in The Comic Imagination in American Literature, ed.
Louis D. Rubin. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1973, pp. 63–76.
Martin, Terence. “Rip, Ichabod, and the American Imagination,” in American Literature, Vol. 31, May, 1959, pp. 137–149.
Pataj, Edward F. “Washington Irving’s Ichabod Crane: American Narcissus,” in American Imago, Vol. 38, Spring, 1981, pp. 127–35.
Plummer, Laura, and Michael Nelson. “‘Girls Can Take Care of Themselves’; Gender and Storytelling in Washington Irving’s ‘The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,’” in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 30, 1993, pp. 175-84.
Pochmann, Henry A. “Irving’s German Tour and Its Influence on His Tales,” in PMLA, Vol. 45, December, 1930, pp. 1150–87.
“Irving’s German Sources in The Sketch Book,” in Studies in Philology, Vol. 27, July, 1930, pp. 477–507.
Theocritus. “Idyll VII,” in The Greek Bucolic Poets, translated by J. E. Edmonds, Cambridge, Mass.: Loeb Library, 1938, lines 135–46.
von Frank, Albert J. “The Man That Corrupted Sleepy Hollow,” in Studies in American Fiction, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1987, pp. 129–143.
Further Reading
Aderman, Ralph M., ed. Critical Essays on Washington Irving,
Boston: G. K. Hall, 1990.
A collection of Irving criticism that includes early nineteenth-century reviews
and twentieth-century scholarly articles.
Bowden, Edwin T. Washington Irving: Bibliography, Boston: Twayne,
1989.
Volume 30 in The Complete Works of Washington Irving, this is the most
comprehensive and current bibliography available.
Bowden, Mary Weatherspoon. Washington Irving, Boston: Twayne,
1981.
An excellent introduction for general readers, covering each of Irving’s major
works in chronological order.
Hedges, William L. Washington Irving: An American Study, 1802–1832,
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965.
Provides insightful literary analysis of Irving’s major works, particularly
those written before his return to the United States.
Tuttleton, James W., ed. Washington Irving: The Critical Reaction,
New York: AMS Press, 1993.
Contains sixteen critical essays on Irving’s work, including three that
directly address “Sleepy Hollow” and two that contextualize his early works,
such as The Sketch Book.
Wagenknecht, Edward. Washington Irving: Moderation Displayed, New
York: Oxford University Press, 1962.
An accessible biography and critical overview that highlights Irving’s
prominence during his lifetime as the United States’ most important writer.
Commentary
Washington Irving (1783859) had been living in England for five years when he finished The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. (1819–1820), a collection of tales, essays, and sketches that would come to be counted as the first internationally successful work by an American author. A New Yorker, the son of a hardware merchant, Irving had dabbled in writing before, most notably producing the satirical A History of New York by Diedrich Knickerbocker (1809). Americans of the early national period yearned for evidence of cultural independence, but questions abounded regarding the proper form and content for an American literature, and authors would continue to doubt the literary potential of a country that seemed so shallowly new. The Sketch Book reflects these cultural insecurities: most of the sketches deal with English scenes, and the book’s narratorial persona, Geoffrey Crayon, suffers acute bouts of Anglophilia. But a handful of selections turn to American settings and subjects, among them “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.”
“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” is presented by Crayon as having come from the papers of Diedrich Knickerbocker, Irving’s fictive historian, the “source” for many of his New York tales. Set in a precinct of Tarrytown (about twenty-five miles north of New York City), the tale centers on Ichabod Crane, a Connecticut Yankee who came to predominantly Dutch Sleepy Hollow not long after the Revolution. A devourer of supernatural lore, the lanky schoolteacher spends much of his time swapping spooky tales with the Dutch housewives, especially tales of the “headless horseman” Hessian trooper who lost his head in a battle nearby. Ichabod also falls for the neighborhood belle, Katrina Van Tassel. But the courtship raises the ire of a rival suitor, the broad-shouldered Dutch local wag, Brom Bones. This, along with Ichabod’s addiction to ghost stories, proves his undoing in Sleepy Hollow. Riding home one night after a party, he is joined on the road by a shadowy rider, whom he perceives to be headless. The terrified Ichabod finally makes it to the bridge where the horseman is said to disappear, but instead the figure hurls his “head” at Ichabod, and it is Ichabod who vanishes, running off from the village for good. The reader is left with hints, in the shattered pumpkin and Brom Bones’s knowing laugh, that perhaps Ichabod’s pursuer was less than spectral. But only perhaps.
Literary and Cultural Influences
Clearly readable in the lines of “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” are influences of late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth-century European cultural movements: a gothic literature featuring supernatural apparitions and a broader Romantic movement characterized by an emphasis on imagination over reason, an attraction to the marvelous, and a longing for the legendary past. Despite claims that US culture should be founded in commonsense rationalism, liberated from Old Worldly superstition, these movements had infiltrated American tastes by the beginning of the nineteenth century. And though initially influenced by urbane British neoclassical writers, Irving to no small degree shared Geoffrey Crayon’s Romantic antiquarianism and fascination with supernatural lore. These leanings were drawn out by Irving’s immersion in the British literary scene in the 1810s and by the tutelage of Sir Walter Scott, who had incorporated folkloristic materials into his fictions of the Scottish border. “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” also owes a particular debt to Romantic interest in German legends: the story's climactic scene (right down to the pumpkin) was borrowed from a story recorded in Johann Karl August Musäus’s Volksmärchen der Deutschen (parts of which had been translated into English in 1791 as Popular Tales of the Germans).
But it would be a mistake to see this story solely as an application of European Romanticism or a grafting of German lore to an American setting. First of all, it is not what might be called a straight ghost story. Indeed, most readers probably find the tale more humorous than horrifying. Irving maintains a suspicion of the imagination and an ironic distance from the ghostly, which has led critics to label his approach to gothic materials as “sportive” or “inconclusive.” Without fully disavowing the ghosts, “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” suggests the possibility of rational explanation, inviting readers to join in a practical joke on Ichabod Crane in a way that indulged Romantic tastes while also catering to American self-proclaimed pragmatism. Second, while “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” owes something to European models, it also draws from domestic sources. Irving had traveled a good deal in the Hudson Valley (including Tarrytown), and he clearly had at least some knowledge of the Dutch, Native American, African, and British vernacular cultures that contributed to the region’s cultural inheritance. Although it is now difficult to trace direct localized sources for “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” scholars have located analogs in regional folklore for material in Irving’s tales as well as real-life models for Ichabod Crane and Brom Bones.
Historical Backgrounds and Social Comments
“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” also is redeemed from derivativeness by its ties to specific historical backgrounds and to contemporary social and political issues. The story is founded in regional history, most prominently building on the fact that New York was initially a Dutch colony and retained Dutch influences through the nineteenth century. Irving utilizes the “ancient” and “peculiar” Dutch (p. 272) to add apparent depth to American history and to stand as a sort of American folk. Irving also tethers the tale to local events of the Revolutionary War, setting it within what was the “neutral ground” segment of the Hudson Valley caught between the British and American armies for most of the war and plagued with violent infighting among residents. Within this infamous territory, which also featured in the second success of American literature, James Fenimore Cooper’s The Spy (1821), Tarrytown was particularly notorious as the place where John André, the British officer subsequently executed as a spy for his dealings with the traitorous Benedict Arnold, was captured. The “unfortunate André” (p. 292) was a troublingly sympathetic figure who epitomized ambivalences lurking in Revolutionary memory.
Even as the story cultivates a sense that the United States had worthwhile, usable history and folk traditions, Irving still recognizes that tales of haunting can also reflect a disconnection from the past. This double-edged sense of haunting is epitomized by the headless horseman. The ghost is linked to historical fact (Hessian mercenaries fought for the British during the Revolutionary War), yet it also signals a sense of historical obscurity and uncertainty, a headless and thus unidentifiable figure killed in a “nameless” battle, surrounded by “floating facts” (p. 273), who, after all, seems little related to either the Dutch or the Yankee protagonist currently inhabiting the area. The haunting at the core of “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” is directly connected to social and historical dislocations attendant upon a contemporary phenomenon that at first would seem antithetical to ghost stories: a “great torrent of migration and improvement” (p. 274) that had particular salience in the New York area. Ichabod Crane represents a tidal wave of New Englanders pouring into New York, causing the state population to quadruple between 1790 and 1820 and transforming the social, economic, and cultural dimensions of the region. And though Irving jokes about the foreshortening of historical memory he associates with this torrent, he also paints Ichabod as essentially a devourer, a potentially community-destroying force implicitly associated with capitalistic progress. Ichabod’s attraction to Katrina Van Tassel is really based on his hungry-eyed appraisal of her father’s farm; at one point he envisions selling it off for cash and then moving on to conquer new frontiers.
But here is the twist. Ichabod, the representative of the race of hardheaded, restless pioneers who have the capacity to overrun local custom and history, is essential in activating the ghost story. In part this is because Ichabod is not really all that hardheaded. He “potently believe[s]” in Cotton Mather’s witch lore, and his “appetite for the marvellous” is only matched by his extraordinary “powers of digesting it” (pp. 276–77). Also, his susceptibility to perceiving the uncanny in his surroundings is increased by his fundamental unfamiliarity with the neighborhood and the neighbors. The Dutch are comfortable in this place in ways the itinerant Ichabod is not. Specifically, because they know that Brom Bones is given to midnight trickery, they might have reason to be suspicious of ghostly intervention, whereas Ichabod is disposed, both by what he knows (spooky stories from New England and New York) and by what as a stranger he does not know, to see ghosts in the Sleepy Hollow shadows.
One can easily see Ichabod’s “odd mixture of small shrewdness and simple credulity” (p. 277) as a two-pronged attack on Yankees and, by extension, American character, lamenting the disruptive tendencies of profit-driven capitalism while also belying conceits of superior rationality. One might also see in the representation of Ichabod a gentle mocking of individuals overly devoted to imagination—self-satirization, perhaps, on Irving’s part, as well as a register of his own doubts about the possibility of being a “man of letters” (p. 276) in an American context. Ichabod’s imaginative endeavors tend to align him with the feminine in the story, the women “spinning” by the fire (p. 277), especially in contrast to the brawny Brom Bones. And the story explicitly exposes strains of anti-intellectualism in American culture: after Ichabod’s disappearance, his books are burned by the farmer he last boarded with, who also declines to send his children to school anymore because “he never knew any good come of . . . reading and writing” (p. 295).
Perhaps more seriously, Ichabod’s gullibility also opens into a political comment. Irving leaned toward what might be called a Federalist ideal of a benignly hierarchal society, rooted in grounding traditions and respect for established authority. This ideal was confronted in Irving’s time by the democratic ferment which would lead to the “Jacksonian revolution” and the expanded suffrage of the 1830s. In this light, “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” can be seen to reflect concerns that also color the work of Charles Brockden Brown and James Fenimore Cooper, about the potential within a transient democratic society for people to be swayed by charismatic voices, by stories that may or may not be true. Though outright references to politics are few in “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” politically loaded questions of authority and authenticity surface throughout the tale, especially in the way the story is framed, coming through a series of intermediating narrators, each of questionable reliability. Knickerbocker, one learns in the postscript, heard the story at a city meeting from an unidentified teller who may merely be trying to entertain in order to earn his wine; this teller himself confesses, in the story’s last line, that he does not “believe one half of it myself” (p. 297). It is even unclear who is the author of the story as the reader receives it: If the postscript explicitly was “Found in the Handwriting of Mr. Knickerbocker” (p. 296), then whose hand wrote the foregoing tale? Irving establishes a whole machinery of provenance and authentication, giving the tale the semblance of a historical document only to undercut it at every turn. In the end, the reader, like Ichabod Crane, cannot be sure of anything. Thus on one level “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” represents an attempt to invest the American countryside with cultural foundations of legends; on another level the story uses issues of authenticity common to ghost stories to raise doubts about American social and political stability.
Legacy
Though Irving fell into critical disfavor in the early twentieth century, his tales have received appreciative reappraisals by later generations, who have recognized “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” as a pioneering work in numerous ways. In addition to showing that American materials could be worked into successful literary form, even in a predominantly Romantic cultural moment, “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” along with “Rip Van Winkle,” has been credited with inventing the short story form. Its humor has been described as anticipating the “tall tale” genre that surfaced most famously in the work of Mark Twain (Ichabod’s hands “dangled a mile out of his sleeves,” while his feet “might have served for shovels” [p. 274]). Its innovative plays on gothic materials have been seen as prefiguring works by Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry James, and the questions of narratorial reliability it raises resonate with postmodern critical approaches.
But the story’s place in literary history is only part of its cultural legacy. “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” was also a pioneering work of American popular culture. Not only has it been widely read, but the sketch has also been so thoroughly adopted as bona fide American folklore that many know the story of Ichabod Crane and the headless horseman without having any idea that it comes from a story written by Washington Irving. There is something marvelously ironic, one might say sly, about this: commenting on the potential for restless Americans to be sold unreliable stories, Irving produced a story that would come to stand as authentic American lore, something he also wholeheartedly encouraged.
See also: Folklore; Gothic Fiction; Humor; Literary Nationalism; “Rip Van Winkle”; Romanticism; Satire, Burlesque, and Parody; Short Story; Tall Tales
Bibliography
Primary Work
Irving, Washington. The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. 1819820. Edited by Haskell Springer. Boston: Twayne, 1978.
Secondary Works
Fox, Dixon Ryan. Yankees and Yorkers. New York: New York University Press, 1940.
Myers, Andrew B., ed. A Century of Commentary on the Works of Washington Irving, 1860974. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Sleepy Hollow Restorations, 1976.
Pochmann, Henry A. “Irving’s German Sources in The Sketch Book.” Studies in Philology 27 (1930): 47707.
Richardson, Judith. Possessions: The History and Uses of Haunting in the Hudson Valley. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003.
Ringe, Donald A. American Gothic: Imagination and Reason in Nineteenth-Century Fiction. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1982.
Rubin-Dorsky, Jeffrey. Adrift in the Old World: The Psychological Pilgrimage of Washington Irving. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
Thompson, G. R. “Washington Irving and the American Ghost Story.” In The Haunted Dusk: American Supernatural Fiction 1820–1920, edited by John W. Crowley, Charles L. Crow, and Howard Kerr, pp. 116. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1983.
Williams, Stanley T. The Life of Washington Irving. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1935.
Judith Richardson
Adaptations
“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” has been narrated by Donada Peters as part of a five-hour audiotape collection titled Rip Van Winkle and Other Stories. This set is available through Books on Tape, Inc. Additionally, the story can be found as a musical dramatization on audiocassette, which has garnered excellent reviews. Produced by Reed Publishing USA in 1993, this version is included in the Carousel Classics series.
The story is also offered on videocassette. Tales of Washington Irving (1987) is a videocassette featuring animated films from the 1970s. Distributed by MGM/UA Home Video, this forty-eight-minute tape includes “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle,” and showcases the voice talents of Mel Blanc and other notable actors. Another videocassette, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving, features live actors and is set in a recreated early American-Dutch village. Published by Guidance Associates, it aims to encourage students to read the story.
Among the numerous film adaptations, two stand out. Shelley Duvall's Tall Tales and Legends: The Legend of Sleepy Hollow is a fifty-two-minute film starring Ed Begley Jr. and distributed by Trimark. In November 1999, Tim Burton directed a major motion picture titled Sleepy Hollow, with Johnny Depp portraying Ichabod Crane.
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