him insane and sentences him to imprisonment. Bodice and Fontanelle then turn their attention to an uprising against the state, led by Cordelia.

In prison, Lear is visited by the ghost of the Gravedigger’s Boy. Together Lear and the ghost share their sufferings, along with the ghosts of Lear’s daughters as they were when young. This moment in the play is important because it allows Lear to see and understand the forces that have made his children the way they are. Cordelia, her new husband John the carpenter, and the army continue in their fight against Bodice and Fontanelle, whose power is dwindling. In the final throes of their rule, the two sisters both arrest their husbands, the dukes, who have tried to escape, and sign Lear’s death warrant.

Despite the sisters’ efforts to maintain control, the state disintegrates. Fontanelle is caught by Cordelia’s soldiers and imprisoned with a number of men, including her father, who fails to recognize her. The past still haunts the present as the decomposing ghost of the Gravedigger’s Boy appears, forgives Lear for endangering his home, and embraces him as a father. In the same way that Lear used his authority in the first scene by killing the worker, Cordelia’s husband now orders Fontanelle shot, and Lear watches her autopsy. Bodice is also arrested, and is bayoneted to death by soldiers. The prison doctor, wishing to gain advancement with the new administration, makes Lear “politically ineffective” by removing his eyes.

The final act returns to the Gravedigger Boy’s farm, now occupied by Thomas, his pregnant wife Susan, and John. In their home they shelter Lear and, despite Susan’s reluctance, a few prisoners from the war. Lear speaks in public, and large groups of people come to listen. Cordelia, who has ordered the reconstruction of the wall, sees his speeches as dangerous to state security and requests that these activities cease. Lear, recognizing his earlier mistake in thinking that the wall would bring peace, informs her that it is of no value in the creation of a society. Cordelia refuses to listen and tells Lear that he must stand trial. The ghost of the Gravedigger’s Boy, whose vision of creating a new world within the old has failed, dies.

The final scene shows Lear climbing the wall, attempting to pull it down. A farmer’s son whom he has met earlier, now a junior officer in the army, shoots Lear, who dies at the wall.

Lear uses as its central figure the character of King Lear, who, according to Raphael Holinshed, “lived about the year 3100 after the creation.” William Shakespeare’s play, King Lear (pr. c. 1605-1606), deals with an old man who, through his own rash deed and misjudgment of his daughters, is subjected to terrible suffering. Lear is not a rewriting of Shakespeare’s play but an examination of certain aspects of a myth in the light of Edward Bond’s own experience of the world. There are, however, numerous similarities with Shakespeare’s play that illuminate Bond’s version.

The Gravedigger’s Boy is Bond’s fool, able to indicate Lear’s mistakes but not to solve them. Bodice and Fontanelle, like Goneril and Regan, are created and given license to act by their father but turn this power against him. Although in Lear Cordelia is not the king’s daughter, Bond does make a connection between the two characters. Cordelia inherits Lear’s position as head of state and carries out her duties with a similar self-righteousness. Bond dramatically explores this reinvention of the political wheel, showing that the same mistakes are inevitable. The impact Shakespeare’s play makes on a theater audience is such that a reinterpretation of the legend, such as Bond is attempting, can create new tensions and challenge an audience into thinking afresh about the issues contained in the play.

Lear, despite shocking scenes which arrest an audience’s attention, also provides splendid moments of comic relief. Much of this humor arises from a contrast between the grotesque and the ludicrous: Bodice knits while Warrington is tortured, and the doctor calms Lear, after the removal of his eyes, with pleasant, soothing words. Moments such as these provide one of the keys to Bond’s success as a writer. He is able to capture his total experience of the world and convert it into theatrical metaphors that operate on many different levels simultaneously. For Bond, these metaphors must always be political.

British authors from Bond's era were deeply impacted by World War II and its aftermath. Adolf Hitler's relentless bombing campaign on London, known as the "blitz," brought the brutal realities of war to British soil. The end of the war uncovered the Nazi concentration camps, where millions were killed for being perceived threats to the German regime, revealing an unimaginable level of evil. The American deployment of the atomic bomb created new anxieties about the planet's future, which were heightened when Britain tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1954.

For the British populace, the violence of war was a stark reality. As the conflict ended, Britain began losing its global standing. The once-mighty British Empire, where it was said the sun never set, started to disintegrate as former colonies like India and regions in Africa gained independence. The 1956 Suez Crisis, where Britain attempted to seize control of the Suez Canal in Egypt and faced international condemnation for its military actions, led to significant governmental disillusionment. Following the United Nations' censure, British troops had to withdraw, and the prime minister stepped down. Equally disheartening for leftist movements was the Soviet Union's invasions of Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968, which exposed socialism as being just as aggressive, dictatorial, and violent as other political systems.

The postwar period in England also saw the rise of the Welfare State, where the government took on greater responsibility for the poor. In 1946, the National Insurance Act and the National Health Service Act were enacted. The National Assistance Act of 1948 aimed to provide government support for the impoverished. Many believed that these government measures would eradicate poverty and unemployment, a notion that was quickly disproven. Nonetheless, the conviction that government aid was necessary for the poor persisted into the late 1960s and early 1970s. During these years, government policies became more liberal. Homosexuality, previously illegal, was no longer under governmental control. The National Health Service began funding contraception and abortions for the underprivileged. Women and minority groups started to demand their rights. Additionally, the Lord Chamberlain's authority to censor theater was abolished.

In his preface to Lear, Bond writes, "We can see that most men are spending their lives doing things for which they are not biologically designed. We are not designed for our production lines, housing blocks, even cars; and these things are not designed for us." Bond's skepticism of technology mirrors the sentiments of his era. During this time, the idyllic pastoral life depicted at the home of Lear's Gravedigger's Boy was rapidly vanishing as agriculture became more industrialized. There was also a prevailing belief that the rise of technology, due to the resulting displacement of workers, significantly contributed to unemployment and, consequently, poverty. Medical advancements were also viewed with suspicion. When the first heart transplant was performed in England in 1967, some likened that achievement to the portrayal of biological technology (and the creation of a monster) in Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein.

The period during which Bond wrote Lear was marked by considerable violence. In 1968 alone, the Soviets invaded Czechoslovakia, Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy were assassinated, and the Six Day War occurred in Israel. During these years, the Vietnam War was intensifying, and British troops were deployed to Northern Ireland to address unrest over the country's sovereignty. Students became heavily engaged in politics, leading to mass demonstrations. However, it also became evident that the students could resort to violence. In 1970, three members of the radical American group "The Weathermen" died when the bomb they were constructing for terrorist purposes exploded. This type of destruction and violence is dramatized in Lear, a play that portrays all governments and revolutions as inherently violent and ultimately similar in their ruthless cruelty and disregard for human life.

Epic Theater/Alienation Effect

In the twentieth century, playwright Bertolt Brecht (The Three Penny Opera) introduced the modern concept of epic theater, specifically for his political plays. Unlike traditional drama, epic theater is structured from a series of numerous scenes, similar to those in Lear, which often span extensive periods and feature a wide array of characters. The constant transition from one scene to another aims to prevent the audience from becoming too emotionally attached to the characters. This emotional detachment is further achieved through Brecht's alienation effect, which ensures the audience is consistently reminded that they are watching a play, not reality.

In Lear, characters occasionally address the audience directly instead of interacting with each other. This form of speech, called an "aside," enhances the alienation effect. For instance, when Warrington is tortured, the grimly humorous remarks from Bodice and Fontanelle highlight the exaggerated fiction, distancing it from reality. This contributes to the alienation effect as well. The goal of this technique is to compel the audience to engage their intellect rather than their emotions when contemplating the play's themes and actions. Brecht believed that emphasizing reason over emotion would more effectively communicate the motives behind political drama.

Anachronism

An anachronism is an element, whether an object or idea, that belongs to a different time period than the one depicted in a literary work; it is noticeably out of sync with the work's setting. The modern workers constructing Lear's wall are anachronistic, as is the futuristic "scientific device" used to blind Lear. Anachronisms can serve two main purposes. They can make a story more universal, suggesting that the narrative transcends its specific time setting and explores themes and ideas relevant to all eras. Additionally, anachronisms can contribute to the alienation effect by creating a surreal atmosphere that emphasizes the unreality of the events. In Lear, Bond employs anachronisms to achieve both effects.

Allusion

An allusion is a reference to something outside the play, typically a literary work. By incorporating allusions, the playwright can enhance the audience's experience of the drama. Although Bond's play is a complete story on its own, it serves as an allusion to William Shakespeare's

King Lear

. Familiarity with King Lear enriches the audience's understanding of Bond's interpretation. For example, Bodice's knitting during chaotic moments alludes to Charles Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities, a novel about the French Revolution where Madame Defarge, one of the revolutionaries, knits the names of aristocrats destined to die into a scarf.

Setting

Bond's play is set in the year 3100, ostensibly in ancient Britain. However, Bond incorporates modern elements, suggesting the action might unfold in a distant future. Viewed this way, Bond could be critiquing the cyclical nature of history. If the play is futuristic, then the events are a reenactment of the original Lear legend from centuries past.

The play's action spans numerous locations, but some settings recur throughout. Although the audience doesn't see Lear's wall until the final scene, the play begins near it, making the wall a constant symbolic presence. Frequent mentions of the wall evoke a sense of confinement and claustrophobia, symbolizing the oppression by various regimes in the play. Ironically, in the final scene, the audience finally sees the wall, hinting at the possibility of a future beyond it. Lear's determination to destroy the wall and its symbolism deepens the inspiration for freedom.

The Gravedigger's Boy's house is another significant setting. In this pastoral environment, Lear encounters the potential for change and the depth of human kindness. The blind Lear returns to this house, creating a refuge for those fleeing the regime. The house symbolizes the hope for happiness and freedom, an escape from oppression. The prison is another crucial location where Lear realizes his role in others' suffering. Imprisoned with his daughters, he understands that their wickedness mirrors—and was shaped by—his own capacity for such behavior.

Metaphor

A metaphor is a word or phrase where the literal meaning is altered to represent something else. The wall, the play's most prominent metaphor, pervades the narrative even when unseen. It symbolizes the oppression and control of corrupt regimes. Bodice, Fontanelle, and initially Cordelia see the wall as something to be dismantled. Yet, those who gain power recognize the wall as a tool to maintain their dominance. Meanwhile, the populace views the wall as the root of their suffering. The effort to build the wall costs them their farms, and men fall ill and die. The wall also metaphorically represents the barrier Lear has erected between himself and his daughters, as well as between himself and his subjects' emotional needs. Lear's final endeavor to dismantle the wall signifies his understanding that such oppressive structures must be eradicated for humanity to progress.

The blinding of Lear serves as a metaphor. In literature, blindness is frequently linked to deeper understanding; for instance, Tiresias, the mythical Greek prophet, is blind, as is the character Oedipus. Lear loses his sight just as he begins to acknowledge his own role in causing others' suffering. In these instances, physical blindness allows for greater insight into the human experience. It also symbolizes an epiphany or profound self-reflection. Similar to the story of Oedipus—who unknowingly killed his father, married his mother, and blinded himself upon discovering the truth—Lear's blinding happens at the moment he fully comprehends the horrors of his actions.

1971: Advances in science and technology spark fears that humanity is abandoning its pastoral roots. Issues like overcrowded cities and widespread unemployment are attributed to technological progress, which replaces human labor with machines.

Today: Computers have transformed business, education, and personal lives in developed nations, but they are also criticized for causing alienation and detachment from "real" life. The successful cloning of sheep raises ethical questions in medicine.

1971: American involvement in Vietnam and the British military presence in Northern Ireland bring the brutal realities of war to the forefront, with young American and British men dying in violent conflicts that are televised. The killing of four student protesters at Kent State University in Ohio adds to the sense of domestic violence.

Today: Conflicts persist, including those in the Balkans and the Persian Gulf, but public protests against these wars are less prominent. Concerns about violence have shifted more towards gang wars and urban crime.

1971: Efforts to aid the poor are primarily seen through legislation and government assistance. However, there is a move towards dismantling Britain's welfare state as Education Minister Margaret Thatcher ends the free milk program in schools.

Today: Many social programs from the 1960s and 1970s have been discontinued. Government assistance to the poor still exists, but there is growing skepticism about the effectiveness of such programs. The focus has shifted to private sector aid and increased volunteerism.

1971: Despite the oppression of socialist regimes like the Soviet Union and East Germany, socialism is romanticized, especially by the youth. In Britain, socialism is seen as a viable alternative form of government.

Today: The Soviet Union has collapsed and the Berlin Wall has been demolished. Socialism is no longer romanticized to the same extent. While there are few socialists in the United States, the movement retains some influence in Britain, particularly in the theatrical scene.

Sources

Hay, Malcolm and Philip Roberts. Bond- A Study of His Plays, Eyre Methuen, 1980, p. 103.

Lappin, Lou. The Art and Politics of Edward Bond, Peter Lang, 1987, p. 129.

Roberts, Philip. Editor Bond on File, Methuen, 1985, pp. 23-24.

Schanne, Richard. The Plays of Edward Bond, Bucknell, 1975, pp. 184-209.

Further Reading

Chambers, Colin and Mike Prior. Playwrights' Progress: Patterns of Postwar British Drama, Amber Lane, 1987.
This book serves as a comprehensive introduction to British drama post-World War II, featuring chapters on Bond and several of his contemporaries.

Hirst, David L. Edward Bond, Macmillan, 1985.
This is an introductory guide to the works of Edward Bond.

Sked, Alan, and Chris Cook. Post-War Britain: A Political History, Penguin, 1990.
This book offers a political history of Great Britain from World War II through the 1980s, with a focus on the 1970s when Lear was first produced.

Spencer, Jenny S. Dramatic Strategies in the Plays of Edward Bond, Cambridge, 1992.
Spencer's book provides in-depth analyses of many of Bond's plays, including Lear.

Trussler, Simon, Editor. New Theatre Voices of the Seventies, Eyre Methuen, 1981.
This book includes sixteen interviews with contemporary British playwrights, including Bond, reprinted from Theatre Quarterly. In his interview, Bond discusses Lear.