by the British in the fall of 1756, in the midst of the French and Indian Wars. The fort was a strategic part of the British attempt to penetrate French territory. The fort was at the southern end of Lake George just west of the Hudson River and was on the important Hudson River-Lake Champlain waterway. The fort survived the first French and Native American attack against it in March, 1757. James Fenimore Cooper uses the war to create a realistic setting for his narrative. The setting for this adventure is during the summer months following, and it is focused on one battle of a long war. Throughout the book the author contrasts the wilderness atmosphere with the more civilized areas along the Atlantic coast. Cooper himself was raised in a village on the edge of the wilderness near Cooperstown, New York.

Fort William Henry no longer exists, but the area today is strikingly similar to its appearance in the time of Cooper’s story. A small village stands where the fort had stood. There is a watering place near the spring from which the fictional Hawkeye drank, and present-day roads follow the paths blazed by Hawkeye and his friends. The wilderness described by Cooper is still mostly wilderness today, but only a few Native Americans still reside in the area.

*Fort Oswego

*Fort Oswego. British fortification at the western end of Lake Ontario that was originally a trading post built by the British and Dutch in 1722. Fortified by the British in 1727, it was one of five small forts in the area. By 1757 it was used to supplement Fort William Henry, and was used by Cooper to enhance the story.

*Lake George

*Lake George. Called Horican by the Native Americans as reported by Cooper, the word is roughly translated “The Tail of the Lake” in reference to its connection to Lake Champlain. The British named it for King George II. It was part of an internal highway connecting the Hudson River to the St. Lawrence River, and was near a warpath used by Native Americans. A narrow lake, one to three miles wide and thirty-two miles long, Lake George was claimed by the French when Samuel de Champlain explored the area in 1609. When the British built Fort William Henry on the southern edge, the area became a strategic part of the French-British conflicts and the center of the fictional activities of Hawkeye.

*Lake Champlain

*Lake Champlain. Much larger than Lake George, Lake Champlain is up to 14 miles wide and 107 miles long. In 1755 the French built Fort Ticonderoga between the two lakes to help secure the area. In 1759, after the events of this adventure, the fort was captured by the British. Lake Champlain and the fort were always on the periphery of Cooper’s story.

The 1760s: The French and Indian War
The French and Indian War, the backdrop for The Last of the Mohicans, spanned seven years. Initially, the conflict was between England and France, with various tribes aligning with each side. England's failure to effectively utilize their allies and their mistreatment of those who did assist led many tribes to either abstain from the conflict or join the French. Although the Cherokee initially sided with the English, they soon switched to the French side, joining tribes like the Delaware, Miami, Potawatomi, Chippewa, Micmac, Abenaki, Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandots. The French had more Native American support from the beginning, partly because they were fewer in number and seen as less of a threat to Native territories.

The Native Americans viewed the French favorably because the French integrated themselves into existing inter-tribal diplomacy. In contrast, the English were perceived as rude. The French allowed their allies to operate autonomously, providing them with arms and letting them choose their own targets and battles. The English, however, tried to conscript Native Americans into their armies. Many, like Magua in The Last of the Mohicans, struggled to adapt to the strict military discipline and issues related to alcohol.

At the start of the war, Native American allies were not considered crucial. This changed in 1759 when the Iroquois Confederacy joined the English in attacking Fort Niagara, a key French stronghold. Bolstered by the Iroquois, the English forces eventually besieged the French, who lacked supplies, reinforcements, and food. The Iroquois were widely believed to be the decisive factor in this battle, which was a significant step in driving the French out.

By allying with the English and helping to expel the French, the Iroquois Nation hoped to secure greater autonomy and land rights. Additionally, by forming a coalition of various tribes, they aimed to amass a force strong enough to eventually expel all foreigners. However, neither goal was achieved; the English provided no treaties or equality, and the Iroquois Nation succumbed to internal conflict and the fragmentation of its constituent tribes.

The 1820s: National Indian Policy and the Birth of American Literature
The 1820s marked a period of significant transformation for the United States. Just eight years prior, the nation had triumphed over the British in the War of 1812. At the start of the decade, the American South emerged as the world's leading cotton producer. This development fueled the industrial economy in the northern states, leading to the construction of more and larger textile mills to process the raw material. In 1821, the United States seized Florida from Spain and simultaneously subdued the Native tribes in the region.

The U.S. military's success in territorial expansion and war victories was paralleled by rapid economic growth across the country. However, America lacked recognition for its artistic or cultural contributions among the older, more established European nations. The diverse customs and population of America were unparalleled, yet there was no enduring cultural symbol for the world to acknowledge—until the publication of The Last of the Mohicans.

James Fenimore Cooper wrote The Last of the Mohicans as a tribute to the disappearing Native American cultures. When the book was published in 1826, the U.S. government was accelerating the forced relocation of Native Americans to the west. In 1824, President James Monroe addressed the "Indian problem" in his State of the Union speech, asserting that the only solution was to move Native Americans to lands further west, away from white settlers.

Following the publication of Monroe's address in national newspapers, Cooper began writing The Last of the Mohicans. This novel, intended both as a tribute and an apology to Native Americans, became the first American fiction recognized in Europe as a significant and serious work. Although the U.S. government's policies and military actions were displacing Native Americans and eradicating their cultural identities, readers worldwide were introduced to Native Americans "as they were." Cooper's novel shaped public perception of Native Americans for years, but the irony was that he wrote it while their way of life was being irrevocably destroyed. A greater irony lies in Cooper's focus on a bygone past rather than addressing the contemporary struggles of Native Americans of his time.

1760s: During the French and Indian War, the British are primarily focused on defeating France, with the presence of Native Americans on desirable lands being a secondary concern.

1820s: Public demand for the removal of Native Americans to facilitate westward expansion reaches a peak. The response includes a series of broken treaties, military actions, and forced relocations aimed at moving Native Americans to the West.

Today: Legal challenges against the Bureau of Indian Affairs are at an all-time high. Public sympathy for the struggles of Native Americans is greater than ever. Amnesty International supports efforts to free Leonard Peltier, an Oglala Sioux believed by many to be wrongly convicted of two murders. Native rights movements are pushing for the enforcement of historical treaties.

1760s: Both America and Canada are under European rule, with minimal colonization beyond their eastern regions. Major cities are located along the East Coast, while Native Americans occupy most of the rest of the land, maintaining their traditional cultures and communities. They are often viewed as a nuisance and a threat.

1820s: As a newly sovereign nation, the United States begins its westward expansion, with pioneers reaching as far as Minnesota. Native cultures in the Mississippi Valley are being devastated. Public opinion, fueled by contemporary newspaper accounts, sees Native Americans as a constant danger. Without legal protections, their treaties are disregarded, and Native Americans are forcibly relocated westward and massacred for any resistance.

Today: Native Americans are a legally protected minority under Affirmative Action laws. Predominantly residing on western reservations, they face the highest rates of suicide, unemployment, and substance abuse among any ethnic group in the United States. On a brighter note, economic improvements are being made through the operation of casinos on sovereign native lands, and Canada has granted a new sovereign province to its indigenous peoples.

The Last of the Mohicans was most recently brought to the big screen in 1992. This adaptation, directed by Michael Mann, featured performances by Daniel Day-Lewis, Madeleine Stowe, and Russell Means. Produced by Morgan Creek, this film can be found on home video and DVD.

In 1977, the novel was turned into a made-for-TV movie directed by James Conway, with a cast that included Steve Forrest, Michele Marsh, and Ned Romero.

In 1957, a TV series inspired by the book's characters was created, sharing the same title. Lon Chaney Jr. took on the role of Chingachgook in this series.

The 1930s saw two film adaptations of the book. The first, directed by Ford Beebe in 1932, starred Harry Carey, Edwina Booth, and Hobart Bosworth. The second, directed by George B. Seitz in 1936, featured Randolph Scott, Alice Munro, and Robert Barrat.

The novel also inspired two silent films. In 1911, Theodore Marston directed a version starring Frank Hall Crane. In 1920, Clarence Brown directed a film starring Harry Lorraine, Barbara Bedford, and Theodore Lurch.

Several international adaptations of the book have also been produced. In 1971, the BBC created a TV version directed by David Maloney, starring Kenneth Ives, Patricia Maynard, and John Albineri. In 1965, two European films were released. Mateo Cano directed a Spanish version featuring Jose Marco David, Luis Induni, and Sara Lezana. Additionally, a joint Italian, German, and Spanish production was directed by Harold Reinl, starring Oberst Munroe, Karin Dor, and Ricardo Rodriguez.

Sources
Dennis W. Allen, "By All the Truth of Signs: James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans," Studies in American Fiction, Autumn, 1981, pp. 159-79.

T. A. Birrell, Preface to James Fenimore Cooper's Last of the Mohicans, 1980.

George Dekker, "'Lillies That Fester': The Last of the Mohicans and The Woman Who Rode Away," New Left Review, November-December, 1964, pp. 75-84.

Escritor, February, 1826, pp. 21-22.

W. H. Gardiner, "Cooper's Novels," North American Review, July, 1826, pp. 150-201.

John A. Inghs, "Colonel George Monro and the Defence of Fort William Henry, 1757," Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Proceedings, January, 1970, pp. 72-73.

Literary Chronicle and Weekly Review, July 29, 1826, pp. 469-73.

Literary Gazette, April 1, 1826, pp. 198-200.

Literary World, October 19, 1826, p. 312.

Liverpool Repository, July-August, 1826, pp. 384, 448.

Terence Martin, "Leatherstocking and the Frontier in Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans," The Frontier in History and Literature: Essays and Interpretations, Verlag Montz Diesterwag, 1962, pp. 49-64.

Monthly Review, June, 1826, pp. 122-31.

John Neal, "The Last American Novel," London Magazine, May, 1826, pp. 27-31.

New York Review and Atheneum Magazine, March, 1826, pp. 285-92.

"North American Indians," United States Review and Literary Gazette, April, 1827, pp. 40-53.

Panaromic Miscellany, April 30, 1826, pp. 533-34.

Thomas Philbrick, "The Sources of Cooper's Knowledge of Fort William Henry," American Literature, May, 1964, pp. 209-14.

Robert E. Spiller, Fenimore Cooper: Critic of His Times, Minton Balch, 1955.

Daniel J. Sundahl, "Details and Defects: Historical Peculiarities in The Last of the Mohicans," Rackham Journal of the Arts and Humanities, 1986, pp. 33-46.

Mark Twain, "Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses," North American Review, July, 1895, pp. 1-12.

United States Review Literary Gazette, March 15, 1826, pp. 87-94.

John V. A. Weaver, "Fenimore Cooper—Comic," Bookman, March, 1924, pp. 13-15.

For Further Study
John Gottlieb Ernestus Heckewelder, An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs, of the Indian Nations, Who Once Inhabited Pennsylvania and the Neighbouring States: Communicated to the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge, printed and published by Abraham Small, 1818.
Heckewelder's book has been recognized as Cooper's primary source of information for his Indian characters.

Donald A. Ringe, James Fenimore Cooper, Twayne, 1988.
A biography and critical analysis of Cooper's literary career.

Marilyn Gaddis Rose, "Time Discrepancy in The Last of the Mohicans," American Notes and Queries, January, 1970, pp. 72-3.
Rose evaluates Cooper's abilities as a historian, noting that while he maintained factual accuracy, he often strayed from chronological order.

Seymour I. Schwartz, The French and Indian War 1754-1763: The Imperial Struggle for North America, Simon & Schuster, 1994.
A historical account of the French and Indian War, which serves as the backdrop for The Last of the Mohicans.

William Thorp, "Cooper Beyond America," North York History, October, 1954, pp. 522-29.
Explores Cooper's influence on European literature in the nineteenth century.

W. M. Verhoeven, editor, James Fenimore Cooper: New Historical and Literary Contexts, Rodopi, 1993.
A collection of essays that examine Cooper's novels through a historically materialist lens.