Lamentations

Download PDF PDF Page Citation Cite Share Link Share

SOURCE: “Lamentations,” in Introduction to the Old Testament, Abingdon Press, 1968, pp. 295-99.

[In the following excerpt from an essay originally written in German in 1965, Fohrer concisely describes the literary type and style of Lamentations and discusses what can be deduced of its origin and authorship.]

… 1. Terminology. Hebrew manuscripts and printed editions call the book of Lamentations by the first word of chapters 1, 2, and 4, 'êkâ, “Alas, how. … ” This title, which usually introduces a dirge, is appropriate to the content of the songs. The earlier name, according to Talmud Bab. Baba bathra 15a, was qîlnôt, “dirges,” corresponding to the name given in the translations: Greek threnoi, Latin lamentationes, German Klagelieder. In most of the translations the title also ascribes the book to Jeremiah, after whose book it is placed. This view is probably based on II Chron. 35:25, although the laments for Josiah mentioned in this passage, one of which Jeremiah is said to have composed, cannot be identified with the book of Lamentations despite Lam. 4:20. The book serves as the festival scroll of the Ninth of Ab, the date of the destruction of Jerusalem.

2. Literary type and style. The book of Lamentations comprises five separate songs coterminous with the chapters. It is impossible to assign them to a specific literary type because in many instances we have a mixture of types. The poet's purpose was not to produce an exemplary poetic form but to embody certain specific ideas, to which the form had to accommodate itself.

Chapters 1, 2, and 4, as their initial word suggests, are dirges, more precisely collective dirges mourning perished Jerusalem. Nevertheless, the poet modulates into other literary types. In 1, in contrast to a dirge, Jerusalem herself addresses Yahweh in prayer, confessing her sins; vss. 12-16, 18-22 are composed in the style of an individual lament. In 2, also, the author departs from the dirge form: the poem focuses on Yahweh; after the lament over Jerusalem, the author speaks in his own person, and finally places a prayer in the mouth of the city. Chapter 4 begins as a dirge, but in vss. 17-20 a group speaks in the style of a community lament, and in vss. 21-22 the poet addresses Edom and Zion.

Chapter 3 is for the most part an individual lament, which passes into the style of a community lament in vss. 40-47 and then returns to the earlier form. In vss. 25-39 we find a meditation on the meaning of suffering. The conclusion contains a narrative of deliverance appropriate to a thanksgiving (vss. 55-62) and a prayer that God will curse the enemies; here we have the element of confidence that God will hear the lament and respond to it favorably. The “I” of the song, which alternates with a “we,” has been interpreted as a personification of Jerusalem speaking as a sufferer (Eissfeldt*, Gottwald), as a representative speaking in the name of the whole community (Keil, Ewald, Ricciotti, Rinaldi), and as an individual who is merely describing his personal fate and not that of the community as a whole (Budde). It is probably more accurate to follow Rudolph in thinking in terms of an individual who feels himself singled out by God's wrath and presents himself as an example to his people. It is not necessary to draw the conclusion that the poet intends to place these words in the mouth of Jeremiah; he may quite well be speaking on the basis of his own experience.

Chapter 5 is a pure community lament, beginning with an invocation of Yahweh, continuing with a detailed lament over the present misery, and ending with a brief prayer for aid.

This analysis of literary types is followed by most scholars. Kraus, however, pointing to Mesopotamian laments over destroyed temples, particularly the Sumerian temple of Ur, postulates a new literary type, the “lament for the destroyed sanctuary,” with a cultic lamentation ceremony as its Sitz im Leben. In Mesopotamia, though, such laments do not constitute an independent literary type (which would be quite peculiar as a sort of liturgical composite); they form a sub-category of the general class of laments. The analogous situation in Jerusalem is sufficient explanation for their similarity to the book of Lamentations; furthermore, the considerable differences should not be overlooked. Finally, the extreme mixture of literary types found in the OT songs and the peculiarity of their stylistic form (which will be discussed below) speak against the assumption made by Kraus.

Stylistically, the first four songs are structured as alphabetic songs. In 1 and 2, the first verse of each three-verse strophe begins with the letters of the alphabet in sequence. In 3, each verse of each strophe begins in this way, and in 4, the first verse of each two-verse strophe. In 2, 3, and 4, precedes ‘ayin, which probably means that the order of the alphabet was not fixed at the time of composition. Chapter 5 is an alphabetizing song; it has as many verses as there are letters in the alphabet. As a consequence of the stylistic form, the intellectual structure of the songs is loose and the presentation somewhat disconnected.

3. Occasion and content. The songs depict and were occasioned by the misery and destruction of Jerusalem after its capture by the Babylonians. They were composed on the basis of meditation upon the reasons for this terrible catastrophe. We are dealing here primarily with expressions of personal feeling, albeit clearly intended to have a pastoral ministry toward the others whom disaster had befallen. It is most unlikely, however, that they were intended from the outset for recitation at cultic lamentation ceremonies; such ceremonies are first mentioned in Zech. 7:1-7; 8:18-19, and were probably not introduced until years or decades after the events.1 Above all, the alphabetic form argues against the assumption of an original cultic purpose; it characterizes the songs as elegies composed by a cultured man, meant primarily for reading and not for recitation.2

4. Origin. The date of the songs follows from their occasion and content: they presuppose the capture of Jerusalem. Rudolph prefers to date the first song in the time of the first occupation and deportation (597) and the others in the years following the final catastrophe (587). But even if the first song does not explicitly mention the destruction of the city and the temple, vss. 10, 17, 19-20 suggest the same situation as chapters 2-5. All the songs, therefore, probably were composed after the year 587, though we cannot fix a precise date for each of them. Chapters 2, 4, and (in part) 5 exhibit concrete details, while 1 and 3 are written in more general terms; but this is more likely due to the poet's intentions than to greater or lesser temporal proximity to the events. This alone can be safely stated: They were written by an eyewitness and before the situation was changed by Cyrus' emancipation edict in the year 538. To date 1 and 3-5 in the period 170-166 b.c. (Treves) is out of the question.

The place of origin cannot be determined with assurance. Gottwald thinks in terms of composition in Babylonia during the Exile; Sellin* places at least 1, 2, and 4 in Babylonia, while suggesting Jerusalem or Palestine for 3 and 5; Rudolph and Weiser* consider Palestine the place of origin for all the songs. There is no definite evidence for any of these assumptions, however. Since Palestine undoubtedly learned very quickly of Ezekiel's preaching, chapters 2 and 4 could quite easily have come under its influence there. On the other hand, one of the exiles could easily give the impression of having experienced the catastrophe of Jerusalem at firsthand. Therefore the question of where these songs originated must remain undecided.

The songs were probably brought together after the end of the Exile at Jerusalem, in the fifth century at the latest. They were collected for the practical purpose of assembling in one document the songs used for ceremonial commemoration of the destruction of Jerusalem.

5. Authorship. Jeremiah is out of the question as author of the songs, although recently Wiesmann has vigorously supported this position. After the catastrophe the prophet did not lament, but admonished the people to acknowledge the fate decreed by God and to obey the Babylonians; he may also have promised salvation to come, a promise contradicted by several verses of Lamentations (cf. 1:10; 4:17, 20b). Neither should the author or authors be sought among the official cult prophets (Kraus), whose guilt is recounted in 2:14 and 4:13 by someone not of their number.

Wiesmann and Rudolph, however, have shown the probability that all the songs were composed by a single author (pace, for example, Eissfeldt*). The evidence, despite the fact that ‘ayin and have a different order in 1 than in 2-4, includes similarities of language and content, stylistic form, and the pastoral purpose and basic theological approach of the songs, all of which hold them together as a unity. If 4:17-20 reflects the personal experience and thoughts of the poet, he was among those that hoped for Jerusalem's deliverance to the very last, and appears to have fled Jerusalem with King Zedekiah. The stylistic form, too, suggests that he belonged to the cultured upper class. It does not necessarily follow that he was deported after the catastrophe; he might have been assigned to the circle around Gedaliah.

6. Significance. At any rate, the destruction of the state and its capital opened his eyes to the deeper significance of the events and led him to a profound appreciation of what had taken place, a receptiveness to the message of the prophets, and an attempt to help his fellow sufferers, caught in a crisis of faith (Weiser*). He sees God's wrath as the immediate cause of the disaster and attributes God's wrath to the sins of the people, with the priests and cult prophets foremost among the guilty. The only deliverance from misery and despair he sees to be prayer to God, who will be gracious and merciful to a repentant people.

Notes

  1. The pilgrimage to Jerusalem described in Jer. 41:5 does not bear witness to such observances, but rather to the continued existence of opportunity for cultic worship at Jerusalem; furthermore, it takes place before the Feast of Booths.

  2. Cf. Jahnow, p. 169.

Works Cited

ATD: A. WEISER, 2nd ed., 1962. BK: H.-J. KRAUS, 2nd ed., 1960. BOT: B. N. WAMBACQ, 1957. HAT: M. HALLER, 1940. HK: M. LÖHR, 2nd ed., 1906. HS: T. PAFFRATH, 1932. IB: T. J. MEEK, 1956. KAT/KAT2: W. RUDOLPH, 1939, 1962. KeH: O. THENIUS, 1855. KHC: K. BUDDE, 1898. SAT: H. SCHMIDT, 2nd ed., 1923; W. STAERK, 2nd ed., 1920. SZ: S. OETTLI, 1889. Individual commentaries: H. G. A. EWALD, Die Dichter des Alten Bundes, I, 3rd ed., 1866; C. F. KEIL, 1872 (Biblischer Commentar) (Eng. 1880); G. RICCIOTTI, 1924; G. M. RINALDI, 1953; H. WIESMANN, 1954.

B. ALBREKTSON, Studies in the Text and Theology of the Book of Lamentations, 1963; J. BÖHMER, “Ein alphabetisch-akrostisches Rätsel und ein Versuch, es zu lösen,” ZAW, XXVIII (1908), 53-57; C. FLÖCKNER, “Über den Verfasser der Klagelieder,” ThQ, LIX (1877), 187-280; N. K. GOTTWALD, Studies in the Book of Lamentations, 1954; M. LÖHER, “Der Sprachgebrauch des Buches der Klagelieder,” ZAW, XIV (1894), 31-50; idem, “Sind Thr IV und V makkabäisch?” ibid., pp. 51-59; idem, “Threni III und die jeremianische Autorschaft des Buches der Klagelieder,” ibid., XXIV (1904), 1-16; H. MERKEL, Über das alttestamentliche Buch der Klagelieder, Dissertation, Halle, 1889; C. VAN DER STRAETEN, “La métrique des Lamentations,” in Mélanges de philologie Orientale, 1932, pp. 193-301; M. TREVES, “Conjectures sur les dates et les sujets des Lamentations,” Bulletin Renan XCV (1963), 1-3; H. WIESMANN, “Die literarische Art der Klagelieder des Jeremias,” ThQ, CX (1929), 381-428; idem, “Der geschichtliche Hintergrund des Büchleins der Klagelieder,” BZ, XXIII (1935/36), 20-43; idem, “Der Verfasser der Klagelieder ein Augenzeuge?” Bibl, X (1936), 71-84; J. K. ZENNER, Beiträge zur Erklärung der Klagelieder, 1905.

Commentaries

Commentaries Cited in the Text

ATD: Das Alte Testament Deutsch, Göttingen.

BK: Biblischer Kommentar, Neukirchen.

BOT: De Boeken van het Oude Testament, Roermond en Maaseik.

COT: Commentar op het Oude Testament, Kampen.

EH: Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament, Münster.

HAT: Handbuch zum Alten Testament, Tübingen.

HK: Handkommentar zum Alten Testament, Göttingen.

HS: Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments, Bonn.

IB: The Interpreter's Bible, Nashville.

ICC: The International Critical Commentary, Edinburgh.

KAT: Kommentar zum Alten Testament, Leipzig.

KAT2: Kommentar zum Alten Testament, Gütersloh.

KeH: Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament, Leipzig.

KHC: Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament (Freiburg i. Br., Leipzig), Tübingen.

SAT: Die Schriften des Alten Testaments, Göttingen.

SZ: Kurzgefasster Kommentar zu den Heiligen Schriften Alten und Neuen Testamentes (ed. Strack-Zöckler), (Nördlingen) München.

Periodicals and Series

A. Alt.: Kleine Schriften A. Alt, Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte des Volkes Israel.

AASOR: Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research.

ABR: Australian Biblical Review.

AcOr: Acta Orientalia.

AfK: Archiv für Kulturgeschichte.

AfO: Archiv für Orientforschung.

AIPhHOS: Annuaire de l'Institut de Philologie et d'Histoire Orientales et Slaves.

AJSL: American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures.

ANET: J. B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 2nd ed., 1955.

AnSt: Anatolian Studies.

AOT: H. Gressmann (ed.), Altorientalische Texte zum AT, 2nd ed., 1926.

ArOr: Archiv Orientální.

ARM: A. Parrot and G. Dossin (ed.), Archives Royales de Mari.

ARW: Archiv für Religionswissenschaft.

ASTI: Annual of the Swedish Theological Institute in Jerusalem.

AThR: Anglican Theological Review.

BA: The Biblical Archaeologist.

BASOR: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.

BEThL: Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium.

BHET: Bulletin d'Histoire et d'Exégèse de l'Ancien Testament.

Bibl: Biblica.

BiOr: Bibliotheca Orientalis.

BJRL: Bulletin of the John Rylands Library.

BMB: Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth.

BS: Bibliotheca Sacra.

BSOAS: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

BWAT: Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten (und Neuen Testament.

BZ: Biblische Zeitschrift.

BZAW: Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wisenschaft.

Canadian JTh: Canadian Journal of Theology.

CBQ: Catholic Biblical Quarterly.

ChQR: Church Quarterly Review.

ColBG: Collationes Brugenses et Gandavenses.

CRAI: Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belle Lettres.

CuW: Christentum und Wissenschaft.

CV: Communio Viatorum.

DTT Dansk Teologisk Tidsskrift.

EstBibl: Estudios Biblicos.

ET: The Expository Times.

EThL: Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses.

EThR: Études Théologiques et Religieuses.

EvTh: Evangelische Theologie.

FF: Forschungen und Fortschritte.

GThT: Gereformeerd Theologisch Tijdschrift.

HThR: Harvard Theological Review.

HTSt: Hervormde Teologiese Studies.

HUCA: Hebrew Union College Annual.

HZ: Historische Zeitschrift.

IEJ: Israel Exploration Journal.

Interpr: Interpretation.

Irish ThQ: Irish Theological Quarterly.

JAOS: Journal of the American Oriental Society.

JBL: Journal of Biblical Literature.

JBR: Journal of Bible and Religion.

JCSt: Journal of Cuneiform Studies.

JDTh: Jahrbücher für Deutsche Theologie.

JEA: Journal of Egyptian Archaeology.

JEOL: Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Gezelschap (Genootschap) Ex Oriente Lux.

JJS: Journal of Jewish Studies.

JNES: Journal of Near Eastern Studies.

JPOS: Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society.

JQR: Jewish Quarterly Review.

JR: Journal of Religion.

JRAS: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

JSOR: Journal of the Society of Oriental Research.

JSS: Journal of Semitic Studies.

JThSt: Journal of Theological Studies.

MAA: Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam.

MDAI: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abt. Kairo.

MGWJ: Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums.

MIOF: Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientforschung.

Münchner ThZ: Münchner Theologische Zeitschrift.

MV(Ä)G: Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatisch (-Ägyptisch) en Gesellschaft.

NC: La Nouvelle Clio.

NedThT: Nederlands Theologisch Tijdschrift.

NkZ: Neue Kirchliche Zeitschrift.

NRTh: Nouvelle Revue Théologique.

NThSt: Nieuw Theologisch Tijdschrift.

NTT: Norsk Teologisk Tidsskrift.

NZSTh: Neue Zeitschrift für Systematische Theologie.

OLZ: Orientalistische Literaturzeitung.

Or: Orientalia.

OrBiblLov: Orientalia et Biblica Lovaniensia.

OrChr: Oriens Christianus.

OTS: Oudtestamentische Studiën.

OuTWP: Die Ou Testamentiese Werkgemeenskap in Suid-Afrika.

PAAJR: Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research.

PBA: Proceedings of the British Academy.

PEFQSt: Palestine Oriental Fund, Quarterly Statement.

PEQ: Palestine Exploration Quarterly.

PJ: Preussishce Jahrbücher.

PJB: Palästinajahrbuch.

PRU: Le Palais Royal d'Ugarit.

PSBA: Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology.

RA: Revue d'Assyriologie et d'Archéologie Orientale.

RB: Revue Biblique.

RdQ: Revue de Qumran.

REJ: Revue des Études Juives.

RES: Revue des Études Sémitiques.

RevBibl: Revista Biblica.

RGG: Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart.

RHA: Revue Hittite et Asianique.

RHPhR: Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses.

RHR: Revue de l'Histoire des Religions.

RIDA: Revue Internationale des Droits de l'Antiquité.

RivBibl: Rivista Biblica.

RThPh: Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie.

SEÅ: Svensk Exegetisk Årsbok.

SJTh: Scottish Journal of Theology.

StC: Studia Catholica.

STKv : Svensk Teologisk Kvartalskrift.

StTh: Studia Theologica cura ordinum theologorum Scandinavicorum edita.

ThBl: Theologische Blätter.

ThGl: Theologie und Glaube.

ThLBL: Theologisches Literaturblatt.

ThLZ: Theologische Literaturzeitung.

ThQ: Theologische Quartalschrift.

ThR: Theologische Rundschau.

ThRev: Theologische Revue.

ThSt: Theological Studies.

ThStKr: Theologische Studien und Kritiken.

ThT: Theologisch Tijdschrift.

ThW: Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament.

ThZ: Theologische Zeitschrift.

Trierer ThZ: Trierer Theologische Zeitschrift.

TTKi: Tidsskrift for Teologi og Kirke.

VD: Verbum Domini.

VT: Vetus Testamentum.

VTSuppl: Supplements to Vetus Testamentum

WdO: Die Welt des Orients.

WuD: Wort und Dienst, Jahrbuch der Theologischen Hochchule Bethel.

WZ: Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift.

WZKM: Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes.

ZA: Zeitschrift für Assyriologie.

ZÄS: Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde.

ZAW: Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.

ZDMG: Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft.

ZDPV: Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins.

ZKTh: Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie.

ZKWL: Zeitschrift für Kirchliche Wissenschaft und Kirchliches Leben.

ZLThK: Zeitschrift für die gesamte Lutherische Theologie und Kirche.

ZMR: Zeitschrift für Missionskunde und Religionswissenschaft.

ZNW: Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft.

ZRGG: Zeitschrift für Religions- und Geistesgeschichte.

ZS: Zeitschrift für Semitistik und verwandte Gebiete.

ZSTh: Zeitschrift für Systematische Theologie.

ZThK: Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche.

ZWTh: Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Theologie.

Get Ahead with eNotes

Start your 48-hour free trial to access everything you need to rise to the top of the class. Enjoy expert answers and study guides ad-free and take your learning to the next level.

Get 48 Hours Free Access
Previous

The Theology of Doom and The Theology of Hope

Next

The Date of Lamentations V

Loading...