two doorways with an elegant woman standing in one and a large tiger head in the other

The Lady, or the Tiger?

by Francis Richard Stockton

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Historical Context

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American Humorists in the Nineteenth Century

In the years leading up to the twentieth century, American literature was rich with adventure novels by authors like Robert Louis Stevenson and humorous works by writers such as Mark Twain, whose novels often satirized the developing American culture. Another favored genre was the straightforward short story with a twist ending, exemplified by O. Henry's "The Gift of the Magi," where a young couple's well-meaning actions lead to a Christmas gift-giving fiasco. Stockton, regarded as a humorist, frequently blended humor with unexpected endings in his stories. His children's book collection, Tin-a-ling, was highly acclaimed for ushering in a new era of children's literature, characterized by plots that did not always conclude happily, despite their fairy tale-like style reminiscent of Grimm's tales and bearing some resemblance to the works of Lewis Carroll.

During his era, Stockton was celebrated as an equal to Mark Twain; in 1899, he ranked fifth in a poll of the best living American writers. He utilized humor to make points clear: "Many of his stories virtually cry out in stifled screams against the cozy suffocation of civilized conduct," noted Henry Golemba in the Dictionary of Literary Biography. In the 1860s, Stockton's initial published works appeared in humor magazines like Punchinello, Hearth and Home, and Puck, which enjoyed widespread popularity before the advent of other mass media. Many writers, including Mark Twain, began their careers in these magazines or in newspapers. These publications offered new stories weekly or monthly and often serialized novels, printing one chapter per issue to keep readers engaged. They played a crucial role in an era before public libraries and the widespread availability of bookstores.

The Pre-Raphaelites' Influence on Literature

The Pre-Raphaelites were a collective of British artists, led by Gabriel Dante Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones, who rose to prominence in the 1850s. Their paintings were renowned for their fairy-tale-like settings, heavily influenced by literature—especially poetry—and music. The name "Pre-Raphaelites" signified their preference for the idealized art of the period before Raphael, an Italian master of the High Renaissance. Their artworks frequently featured beautiful women in flowing gowns, maidens being courted by brave knights, and damsels in lush, overgrown English gardens. This artistic movement also impacted writers. Authors familiar with the Pre-Raphaelites gained popularity through works imbued with strong elements of fantasy, such as Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland and J.M. Barrie's Peter Pan.

Stockton's "The Lady, or the Tiger?" can be associated with the Pre-Raphaelite tradition, featuring fairy-tale elements like a kingdom, a princess, and a brave suitor. Stockton's children's stories also reflect this style. Unlike the Pre-Raphaelites' paintings, however, the fantasy literature of the era often included absurd or ironic elements, as any reader of Lewis Carroll would recognize. Golemba summarized one of Stockton's children's stories: "after the heroine is beheaded inadvertently by the hero, her head is magically reattached to her body—but backwards." This kind of irreverence was typical of American humorists, who preferred absurdity over evoking a distant past of art and literature, unlike the Pre-Raphaelites.

As the twentieth century began, Stockton feared his work would become a relic of a vanishing era. New tensions that eventually led to World War I ushered in new literary styles—especially modernism—and new art movements, such as cubism and expressionism. The comedic, slightly detached perspective of the world, as seen in the works of Stockton, Twain, and other American humorists, came to be viewed as quaint and less relevant to those grappling with the tragedies of modern life.

Social Sensitivity

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In the decades leading up to the twentieth century, popular American literature featured an abundance of adventure novels, such as those by Robert Louis Stevenson, and humorous works, including Mark Twain's novels, which often satirized the burgeoning American culture. Another favored genre was the straightforward short story with a twist ending, exemplified by O. Henry's "The Gift of the Magi," where a young couple's well-meaning intentions lead to a Christmas gift-giving fiasco. Stockton was recognized as a humorist, and his stories frequently blended humor with unexpected endings. His children's anthology, Ting-a-ling, was highly acclaimed for ushering children's literature into a new era, relying on plots that did not always conclude happily, despite being modeled after the Grimms' fairy tales and bearing similarities to Lewis Carroll's writings.

During his era, Stockton was celebrated as a peer of Mark Twain; in 1899, he ranked fifth in a poll of the best living American writers. He employed humor for illustrative purposes: "Many of his stories virtually cry out in stifled screams against the cozy suffocation of civilized conduct," wrote Henry Golemba in the Dictionary of Literary Biography. In the 1860s, Stockton's first published works appeared in Punchinello, Hearth and Home, and Puck, all humor magazines with significant followings during a time before other mass media forms existed. These magazines provided a platform for writers to launch their careers, similar to how Mark Twain started as a reporter. Magazines released new stories weekly or monthly and often serialized novels, printing one chapter per issue to keep readers engaged. Such publications were crucial before the establishment of public libraries and the widespread availability of bookstores.

The pre-Raphaelites were a group of British artists, led by Gabriel Dante Rossetti and Edward Burne-Jones, who rose to prominence during the 1850s. Their paintings were characterized by fairy-tale settings, heavily influenced by literature—especially poetry—and music. The name "pre-Raphaelites" reflected their preference for the idealized art reminiscent of the period before Raphael, an Italian master of the High Renaissance. Their artworks frequently depicted beautiful women in flowing gowns, maidens wooed by gallant knights, and damsels amidst lush English gardens. This artistic movement also left its mark on writers. In literature, authors familiar with the pre-Raphaelites gained popularity with works rich in fantasy elements, such as Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland and J. M. Barrie's Peter Pan.

Stockton's "The Lady or the Tiger?" draws partly from the pre-Raphaelite tradition, featuring fairy-tale elements like a kingdom, a princess, and a brave suitor. Stockton's children's stories also follow this pattern. However, unlike pre-Raphaelite paintings, the fantasy literature of the era often incorporated absurdity or irony, as any reader of Lewis Carroll would recognize. Golemba summarized one of Stockton's children's tales: "After the heroine is beheaded inadvertently by the hero, her head is magically reattached to her body—but backwards." This kind of irreverence was typical of American humorists, who displayed their dissatisfaction with the modern, mechanized world through absurdity, rather than by harking back to an earlier era of art and literature, as the pre-Raphaelites did.

As the twentieth century approached, and as Stockton had feared, his work became a relic of a rapidly vanishing age. The new tensions that eventually led to World War I brought about fresh literary styles, particularly modernism, and new art forms like cubism and expressionism. The humorous, somewhat detached perspective of the world employed by Stockton, Twain, and other American humorists began to be viewed as old-fashioned and irrelevant to those grappling with the horrors of war and the uncertainties of modern life.

Compare and Contrast

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1881: Animals are not shielded from human exploitation. P.T. Barnum and his partner, James Bailey, establish the Barnum & Bailey Circus, featuring Jumbo, an African elephant they purchased in London, as their main attraction. Their traveling circus entertains thousands across the United States.

1990s: Tigers and other animals receive protection as endangered species. Tigers are often bred in captivity, residing in zoos or being trained for circus performances. Several tiger species went extinct in the twentieth century, and by 1996, only twenty to thirty South China tigers remain.

1880s: Capital punishment is widely practiced globally and in the United States, although public executions are less frequent than before. Some movements to abolish the death penalty have seen success. By the 1880s, Michigan, Venezuela, and Portugal have all banned capital punishment.

1990s: Many states reintroduce the death penalty. By 1997, it is legal in all but thirteen states and the District of Columbia. Execution methods include hanging, electrocution, gas chamber, firing squad, and lethal injection. While capital punishment is abolished in Europe and many other countries, the United States, China, and Japan remain its most notable supporters.

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