SOURCE: Alexander Vannovsky, in an introduction and "The Search for a Subject," in Volcanoes and the Sun, Bridgeway Press, 1960, pp. 11-29, 68-83.

[Previous to 1960, scholars cast the central conflict of the Kojiki in terms of sun and storm; Vannovsky amended these to sun and volcano, noting both the significance of volcanoes in Japanese geology and culture and their absence as explicit references in the Kojiki. In the first part of the following excerpt, he relates the essential material of the mythological portion of the Kojiki focusing especially on the Susano-o tales. In the second part, Vannovsky examines that portion through the lens of his central thesis.]

The original Kojiki is preceded by an introduction by the author, Oono Yasumaro, which clarifies the circumstances surrounding this literary movement and how he finally became its author.

The introduction relates that about the time of the reign of Emperor Temmu (673-686), several noble families possessed writings or chronicles of two kinds: one were called teiki or senki, meaning "Imperial annals," the others, hondzi or, "records about immemorial ancient things." The hondzi contained myths, folklore, legends, and songs, together with records about the origin of families from the heavenly or earthly gods.

The Emperor Temmu, noting that the hondzi contained many inaccuracies, also questioned the veracity of the "Imperial annals." He directed that all these ancient records be examined, errors be eliminated, and the truth transmitted to the coming generations.

Following the instructions of Temmu this work was entrusted to Hieda-no-Are-mitsu, a person whose biography is nebulous, but who, according to most scholars, was a lady-in-waiting with an immense erudition in reading of old writings and a phenomenal memory. Yasumaro, in his introduction says, "she was about 28 years of age, naturally endowed with intelligence, could remember everything she had ever read, and never forgot things she heard once."

The death of the Emperor Temmu in the year 686, terminated the work and it remained unfinished for 24 years. In 711 the Empress Gemmyo decided that the work should be continued and on September 18, 711, published an edict ordering the court official Oono Yasumaro, a celebrated sinologue and learned writer, to finish the work which Hieda-no-Are-mitsu had begun. After 4 months and 10 days the work was finished, and on January 28, 712 Yasumaro reverently offered the Empress three parts of the Kojiki.

The tale of the Kojiki begins with the moment of the creation of the universe, when there was not yet either heaven, nor earth, but existed only a certain intangible place called Takama-no-hara.

"At the beginning of the heaven and earth there appeared in the land of Takama-no-hara several gods whose names were: Ame-no-Minakanushi-no-kami (God Ruler of the Heavenly Center), then Takami-Musubi-no-kami, and Kammu-subi-no-kami."

Scholars agree that the names of the two latter gods point out the principle of generation, inherent in the first god, with divisions into male and female, or static and dynamic nature. "These three gods were formed as pillars. They appeared singly and then hid their images."

"Later, when the country was still new and resembled a floating drop of oil, something similar to a reed shoot blossomed, and gods emerged from it. The first two were Umashi-Ashi-Kabihikoji-no-kami and Ame-Tokotachi-no-kami. These gods, also pillars, appeared separately and then hid their images."

Following the gods mentioned above, there gradually appeared seven more generations of gods. The first two came singly, but the next five came each with a member of the opposite sex. The analysis of the names of these gods gives some idea of the gradual formation and hardening of the earth, the separation of heaven from the earth, and the appearance of the organic world.

The last of the previously mentioned generations of gods was the divine couple, God Izanagi and Goddess Izanami, who later formed the earth and created life thereon in accordance with the directive of the preceeding gods, "Organize and consolidate this floating (formless) land."

In order to fulfill this directive, the heavenly gods supplied Izanagi and Izanami with only the heavenly staff. The couple then descended to the Heavenly Floating Bridge, from which Izanagi lowered the Heavenly Staff into the depths of the sea. When he lifted the staff, drops of sea water fell from its tip, hardened, and formed an island, which was called Onokorojima, "the island which hardened by itself."

The heavenly couple then descended to this island, erected a palace 8 ells long, and joined in matrimony. This union led to the creation of eight great Japanese islands, numerous small islands, rivers, mountains, and life thereon, including the gods who were to rule over everything. The God of Fire, Hi-no-Kagutsuchi-no-kami was the last born for, upon his birth, he burned the productive organs of his mother and the Goddess Izanami died in agony.

Izanagi was grief stricken by the death of his beloved. In desperation, he threw himself at the feet of his dead wife and sobbing bitterly cried, "O my beloved wife! How can the new child replace thee in my heart—a splinter from a tree?"

The deceased goddess was buried in the hills of Hiba, on the boundary between Izumo and Hahaki.

The God Izanagi, filled with despair and hatred for the unfortunate baby who had caused the death of Izanami, decapitated Hi-no-Kagutsuchi-no-kami. The blood of the murdered son spread to the neighboring rocks, and from different members of his body, a whole row of gods were born. Amongst them was the Marital God Take-Mikazuchi, who plays an important part in the following tale.

"And the God Izanagi got an immense desire to see his wife, the Goddess Izanami, and he followed her to the land of Yomotsu-kuni—the land of shadows. When the goddess lifted the door of the underworld palace and came to him, Izanagi addressed her: 'My beloved wife! Come back to the land we created together, the creation is not yet finished.' The Goddess Izanami answered: 'What a pity thou didst not come earlier. I have already tasted the food prepared on the hearth of Yomotsu. But my husband, thy coming is precious to me and I will go back with thee. Only give me time to ask advice from the gods of the land of Yomotsu. While I am gone, pray, but do not look after me.'

With these words the goddess disappeared into the palace and did not return for a long time.

After waiting restlessly, Izanagi at last lost his patience. He took a comb from the left side of his hair, broke off the teeth, lighted it like a torch and threw it into the palace. The vision which appeared before his eyes was fearful—the body of Izanagi full of worms and matter and covered with thunder-rendering Demons.

Frightened by this spectacle, Izanagi took flight. The Goddess Izanami shouted after him, "Thou hath covered me with shame"—and sent the horrible witches Shilome after him. Observing the pursuit, Izanagi took from his head a black band made from a grape vine—Kuromikazura—and threw it behind him. At once a wild vine sprung up which the witches began to devour. Izanagi fled, but the witches were soon after him once more. Izanagi then took the comb from the right side of his hair, broke out the teeth and scattered them after him. Shoots of bamboo soon sprung up, and while the witches were devouring these, the god continued his flight.

Izanami, angered at the witches' inability to overtake her husband, ordered the Thunder Demons and an additional army of 1,500 lesser demons from the land of Yomotsu to take up the chase. Izanagi was deftly brandishing his sword, but could not repel the pursuit. When Izanagi arrived at the foot of Mount Hirasaka, he saw a peach tree covered with fruit. The god plucked three peaches, and allowing the legion of pursuers to approach, threw the fruit at them. Finally the army from the land of Yomotsu turned in flight.

Izanami, enraged at the failure of her army, took up the pursuit herself. Izanagi, observing her approach, carried a huge rock—Chiba Iwa—to the foot of Hirasaka and thus blocked Izanami from ascending the mountain. Then the couple, separated by this rock, informed each other of the rupture of their marital union.

Izanami said, "My dearest husband! If thou actest in this way, I will kill the people of thy land by a thousand men per day."

Izanagi replied: "My dear wife! If you will act in this way, I will build lying-in chambers, a thousand five hundred a day."

And since then, every day one thousand men die, but one thousand five hundred are born without fail.

After this meeting with his wife, the God Izanagi hurried to the locality of Hagiwara, in the land of Hiuga, where he washed himself of the filth he had acquired in the land of Yomotsu. During his bathing in a small bay named Tachi-bana, a multitude of gods were born from the filth as it floated away. The last to be born were the great Goddess Amaterasu—as he washed his left eye, the Goddess Tsuki-yomi—as he washed his right eye, and the God Takehaya Susanoo—as he washed his nose.

Izanagi rejoiced upon seeing these three offspring and granted each of them a kingdom. The Goddess Amaterasu was entrusted to reign over the country of Takama-no-hara (land of heaven's light). The Goddess Tsuki-yomi was given the country of Yoru-no-osu-kuni (the land of the night). The God Susanoo was granted the country of Unabara (the marine element).

Amaterasu and Tsuki-yomi obediently carried out the will of their father. Only the God Susanoo rebelled. He did not want to rule the country Unabara. Susanoo began to cry and wail, stating that he wished to join his mother in the country of Neno-katasu-kuni. He bemoaned his fate so long and tearfully, that his beard grew 8 feet reaching his breast. His crying used up all the water in the rivers and seas and all the vegetation on the land dried up. Upon seeing this turmoil, the wicked gods began to move in great swarms and filled the land with their noise and confusion. Izanagi, angry at the disobedience of his son, exiled him from the country, forbidding him to dwell in heaven. Hence the God Susanoo, obliged to leave the country of his father, wished first to see his bright sister Amaterasu and, disobeying his father's directive, ascended to heaven. From his walking, all the mountains and rivers trembled and the earth shook.

The apparition of Susanoo near the frontier of the land Takama-no-hara quite upset his sister Amaterasu.

She suspected her brother had a wicked plan to take the country from her. Therefore, she met her brother in a man's garb with a bow and arrow in hand. Susanoo immediately recognized her and hastened to assure his sister that he had no bad intentions. He told her that he had come simply to say goodbye as their father had exiled him because he had cried in longing for the country of his mother. Amaterasu was still not convinced of her brother's good intentions. Susanoo, in order to prove his innocence, proposed to bring children into the world in a very original way. First the Goddess Amaterasu had to break her brother's sword into three parts, and wash them in the heavenly well. Putting the pieces into her mouth, she chewed them into powder, and when she exhaled, three girls were born. The God Susanoo did likewise with the hair ornaments and necklace of his sister and five boys were born.

The fact that Susanoo's sword had produced three innocent girls served as proof of the purity of his intentions. This filled him with self-conceit of such magnitude that in a display of pride he began to destroy. He filled the cultivation ditches in the rice fields with earth and made filthy his sister's palace. Still Amaterasu bore patiently the mischief of her brother, giving him the benefit of her doubt. This only irritated Susanoo the more and led him to still more violent action. When the goddess, with other women of the palace, were working in the spinning room, Susanoo broke the roof and threw at their feet a bloody skin, torn by him from a piebald horse. This frightened the women so much, that they pricked their hands on the weaving spindles and died from the wounds.

This wicked act of Susanoo saddened Amaterasu so greatly that she shut herself in the Heavenly Cave Amano-Iwato. Immediately the land of Takama-no-hara and the Land of the Luxurious Reeds were cloaked in an impenetrable darkness, having lost their source of light. It seemed that this darkness would be eternal. But worst of all, the wicked raised their voices from this darkness and misfortune occured throughout the land.

This threw the gods of Takama-no-hara into anguish. They assembled on the banks of the quiet Heavenly River, and decided the misery would not end unless Amaterasu could be convinced to return from the cave. Following the advice of the sage God Omoi-Kane, they decided to appeal to Amaterasu the next day. They placed an uprooted myrtle tree at the entrance of the cave, suspended on it jasper stones, a mirror, white pieces of cloth, and paper. The God Ame-no-Koyaneno-Mikoto began to read invocations loudly and at the same time the mighty God Tadzikara-no-kami hid himself at the entrance of the cave. They also placed an inverted barrel at the entrance, on which the Goddess Uzume began to execute a bacchic dance, accompanied by singing roosters. The comical gestures in her movements made the assemblage laugh so uproariously that the heavenly country shook. The laughter reached the ears of Amaterasu and interested her. She moved slightly the stone which closed the entrance to the cave and looked through the crack. The Goddess Uzume quickly put a mirror before the face of Amaterasu saying: "We rejoice and make merry because as you can see, we have a goddess better than you." When the goddess, completely amazed, emerged at the entrance, the mighty God Tadzikara-no-kami led her out by the hand. All the world was lit by her radiance, and Olympus was joyful.

Then the gods ruled that Susanoo, the cause of all the misery, should be punished. They plucked out his luxurious beard, pulled out his finger and toe nails, and then exiled him from the land of Takama-no-hara.

Further in the myth the place of action moves from the heavenly Takama-no-hara to earth and the land of Izumo.

The God Susanoo, so goes the story, after his exile from Takama-no-hara, descended to Tori-kami on Izumo, near the river of Hi-no-kawa. While standing by the river, he noticed a pair of chopsticks floating downstream. Realizing there must be people in that direction, he started upstream and came upon an old couple and a young girl. They were sitting on the ground crying bitterly.

When Susanoo asked who they were, the old man answered, "I am the son of Oyamatsumi, the god of this place. My name is Ashinozuchi, my wife's, Tenazuchi, and my daughter's, Kushinada-hime."

When Susanoo asked them why they were crying the old man related: "I had eight daughters, but every year, from the land of Koshi, the dreadful serpent Yamatano-Orochi comes, and devours one daughter. Only this one child is left, and now is about the time when it will come. That is why we are crying."

Susanoo asked him to describe the serpent. The old man answered "Its eyes are as red as a ripe fruit. Its body is one, but it has eight heads and eight tails. Its skin is covered with moss and trees, and its body is so huge that it trails over eight hills and eight valleys. Blood constantly oozes from its body."

Having heard this story, Susanoo assured the old people that he would save them and their daughter from the serpent on the condition that they would offer the daughter in matrimony.

The old people agreed, whereupon Susanoo turned the girl into a comb, put it in his hair, ordered the old people to brew sake, and surround the area with a hedge. The hedge was to contain eight gates with a couch and a barrel of sake at each. These preparations were hardly finished when the serpent suddenly appeared from apparently nowhere. Sniffing the aroma of the sake, he emersed one head into each of the sake barrels and drank so greedily that he soon became quite drunk. He then dropped to the ground and fell soundly asleep.

Susanoo, who had been watching the serpent, quickly drew his magic sword and began to gash the serpent with such strength that even the river flowed full with blood. While Susanoo was cutting one of the serpent's tails, his sword struck something hard, causing his sword to dent. Interested, Susanoo cut open the tail and found another sword, which he offered later, as a curiosity, to his bright sister, the Goddess Amaterasu. This sword, known as "Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi" is one of the most sacred relics passed from generation to generation down the line of Japanese Emperors. This will be discussed later.

After killing the serpent, Susanoo married Kushinadahime, the girl he saved, built himself a palace in a picturesque locale named Suga, and began to live happily and prosperously.

One of Susanoo's descendants, five generations removed, was the celebrated God Ookuni-nushi, who occupies a principal place in the myth. Many pages of the story are consumed by the descriptions of the amorous exploits of Ookuni-nushi, which we will not explore here due to lack of space. We must only say, that owing to his success in love, Ookuni-nushi alienated his 80 brothers and was obliged, in order to save his life, to flee the land of Neno-katasu-kuni, which the scholars consider to be the same as the land of shadows—Yomi.

The God Susanoo and his daughter Suseri-hime were residing in Yomi at the time of Ookuni-nushi's arrival. Ookuni-nushi and Suseri-hime fell in love at first sight and planned to marry at once. However, the cunning Susanoo, before he would give consent to the marriage, decided to test the courage and resourcefulness of his son-in-law to be. He first threw Ookuni-nushi into a pit of snakes. The next day, he locked him in a room filled with bees and centipedes. Both times Ookuni-nushi came out unhurt, owing to a miraculous talisman his beloved had given him. The third day, Susanoo shot an arrow into a field and sent Ookuni-nushi to look for it. While the search was in progress, Susanoo fired the grass in the field. Surrounded by fire from all sides, Ookuni-nushi was about to die when a mouse showed him a hole where he could escape the flames. Moreover, the mouse had already found the missing arrow and had been chewing its feathers when the fire began. Ookuni-nushi once again successfully completed his task without harm. Susanoo, not yet satisfied, subjected Ookuninushi to a new trial. He had to search for insects in Susanoo's hair which, to Ookuni-nushi's horror, proved to be full of poisonous centipedes.

That night, Ookuni-nushi decided he must attempt to escape. He patiently waited until Susanoo was asleep, then fastened separately each of Susanoo's hairs to a beam in the house. He next rolled a huge rock in front of the palace entrance, lifted his beloved onto his back, and before fleeing, took Susanoo's sword, bow and arrows, and musical Koto.

In his haste, Ookuni-nushi unfortunately entwined a string of the koto on a tree. There was a sound which shook the earth. Susanoo awoke and sprang up. Observing the fleeing pair, he took chase but could not overtake them. Stopping at the foot of Mount Yomotsu Hirasaka, where the rock Chibiki-Iwa had once barred Izanami's pursuit of Izanagi, Susanoo shouted loudly, "Hey there! Listen! Take my bow and arrows and sword. Carry them to thy brothers of the hills and rivers, and thou thyself (Ookuni-nushi) be 'Ruler of the Great Land.' Take my daughter as your wife, build thyself a palace at the foot of Mount Ugayama and live there with her, thou scoundrel!"

According to the bequest of his father-in-law, Ookuninushi became the ruler of the land and began life with his wife in a new palace. Their marital bliss was darkened only by the weakness of Ookuni-nushi toward the fair sex. Jealous protestations over the amorous adventures of Ookuni-nushi take no small place in the tales of the Kojiki. Many beautiful, lyric verses, which we must unfortunately omit, resulted from Suseri-hime's pleading.

When Ookuni-nushi was near the penninsula of Miono-Misaki, in the land of Mizuno, he saw a boat made from a nutshell coming toward him. A god, dressed in a cape of ant's skin, was occupying the boat. Ookuninushi asked his name, but the god did not answer. He asked his intimate friends but nobody knew who the strange god was or where he came from. The question was resolved by the toad Taniguku who happened to be present. She advised asking the garden scarecrow Kuebiko for information. He seemed to know everything in the world, although he had no feet and could not walk. When asked, Kuebiko at once gave answer. "This is the dwarf-God Sukunabiko, the son of the God Kammusubi."

Still uncertain they decided to ask the God Kammusubi himself and he confirmed, "Yes, it is really my son. He is the smallest among my sons and escaped my hands from between my fingers. Let Ookuni-nushi fraternize with him and together build this land."

Ookuni-nushi and Sukunabiko at once began to establish and fortify the country. But soon Ookuni-nushi lost his companion as Sukunabiko retired to Tokoyono-kuni, the Land of Eternity.

This loss saddened Ookuni-nushi and he repeated forlornly, "How can I fortify the land alone? With what god shall I organize it?"

Suddenly, the sea brightened from a wonderous light. A god swam to shore and told Ookuni-nushi, "If thou willst honor me I will organize the country with thee. Otherwise thy country will not form."

The astonished Ookuni-nushi asked, "How must I honor thee?"

"Worship me and pray in the eastern mountains of the land of Yamato which are hedged by green forests." This god, says the Kojiki, lives on all the mountains. This god, say the learned scholars of the Kojiki, is none other than the peaceful soul of Ookuni-nushi which was resting at the bottom of the sea and came to the surface at a difficult moment in his life.

Further, after the enumeration of the countless descendants of Ookuni-nushi, the narration of the Kojiki returns to heaven.

The Goddess Amaterasu allowed her son called Ameno-Oshio-mimi-no-mikoto, to descend from the heaven to earth and rule The Land of Luxurious Reeds and Precious Rice-ears. The God Ameno-Oshio-mimi-nomikoto descended to the aerial Heavenly Bridge, looked down at what was earth, and returning to heaven informed his mother, "In the Land of Luxurious Reeds and Precious Rice-ears, complete disorder reigns."

Then, by order of the Gods Takami-Musubi and Amaterasu, a meeting of the council of gods was called on the banks of the "Quiet Heavenly River." First, a question was directed at the wise God Omoi-kane. "The Middle Land of the Plain of Reeds was bequeathed to Ameno-Oshio-mimi-no-mikoto to rule. But now in this land the earthly gods are rioting in great numbers. Who can we send to pacify them?"

The wise Omoi-kane meditated briefly, then answered, "Let us send Ameno-hohi."

The God Ameno-hohi was sent, but three years passed and no word of him was heard. It was finally learned that Ameno-hohi had gone to the land of Ookuni-nushi and did not wish to return to heaven.

Again the gods held council and the wise Omoi-kane advised, "Let us send Ame-Wakahiko, the son of the god Amatsu-kunitama."

The gods sent Ame-Wakahiko, armed with a bow and arrow. But he also fell short of the expectations of the heavenly gods. Descending to the earth, he married the daughter of Ookuni-nushi, Shitateru-hime. Deciding that it was much better to rule this country himself, he forget his heavenly mission, and sent no news for eight years.

The gods of Takama-no-hara then chose a third messenger—a pheasant, and sent him to find out why Ame-Wakahiko had not returned. But the faithless Ame-Wakahiko shot the pheasant with the same arrow the gods had given him. The arrow, after piercing the breast of the pheasant, soared to heaven and fell at the feet of the God Takami-musubi and the Goddess Amaterasu, who were sitting on the banks of the "Quiet Heavenly River." The God Takami-musubi picked up the arrow and noticed blood on its feathers. Looking more closely, he realized it was the same arrow that had been given to Ame-Wakahiko. Then addressing the council of heavenly gods, Takami-musubi said, "If Ame-Wakahiko did not disobey orders and killed with this arrow the riotous earthly gods, then let this arrow miss Ame-Wakahiko. But if his conscience is guilty, let Ame-Wakahiko perish by this arrow."

With these words, Takami-musubi threw the arrow through the hole it had made in the heaven. This proved fatal to Ame-Wakahiko as the arrow pierced his breast while he was resting on his couch.

For the third time the gods held council on the banks of the Quiet Heavenly River and decided this time to send two gods, Takemikazuchi and Ame-no-torifune.

Both gods descended near the shore of Inasa in the land of Izumo, dressed in a warlike fashion. They appeared sitting with crossed legs on the points of swords, which were immersed to the hilt in the crest of a wave. They addressed Ookuni-nushi categorically, "We are sent here by orders of the Goddess Amaterasu. She bequeathed to her child the Middle Land of the Plain of the Reeds, which thou art governing. What dost thou intend to do?"

Ookuni-nushi avoided a direct answer and asked the gods that he allow his elder son, Yae-Kotoshironushi to decide the matter. The eldest son at once obediently answered that the land must be given over to the heir of heaven. But the youngest son of Ookuni-nushi, the God Takeminakata, protested. He picked up a huge rock and demanded to test the strength of Takemikazuchi. The messenger god accepted the challenge and at the end of the struggle was defeated. The disobedient Takeminakata quickly thereafter became repentent, pleaded for pardon, and resolved that he would not act against the decision of his father and brother to transfer the land. Ookuninushi, seeing that his sons did not oppose the transfer, decided to retire, and gave the lands to the rule of the heavenly heir.

The Gods Takemikazuchi and Ameno-torifune, having successfully completed their mission, ascended to the heaven and reported that the Middle Land of the Plain of the Reeds had been pacified.

Then the Goddess Amaterasu ordered the Heir of the Sun, the Goddess Masaka-Akatsu-Kachi-Ameno-Mimi, to descend to earth and govern the Middle Land of the Plain of the Reeds.

The goddess answered, "While I was preparing to descend to the earth, I gave birth to a son named Amenigisi-Kuni-nigisi-Amatsu-Hidakahiko-Hono-Ninigi-nomikoto. Let him descend to the earth." And so it was.

Then a historical bequest was given to the God Hiko-Hono-Ninigi by the council of gods. "We entrust you to govern the Land of Luxurious Reeds and Precious Rice-ears. According to the order you must descend at once from heaven to the earth."

Five of the eldest gods were designated to accompany Ninigi. They were, Ame-no-Koyane-no-mikoto, Futo-dama-no-mikoto, Ame-no-uzume-no-mikoto, lshikiri-dome-no-mikoto, and Tamano-oya-no-mikoto. They were all considered to be scions of the noblest families.

In addition, three sacred relics were entrusted to the God Ninigi: the necklace Yasakani-no-magatama, the mirror Yata-no-kagami, and the sword Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi. When the Goddess Amaterasu entrusted the mirror, she said to her grandson, "Consider this mirror my soul and honor it as thou wouldst honor me."

Today, in Shinto temples throughout Japan, the mirror is honored as a symbol of the soul of the Goddess Amaterasu and is one of the principal features of the cult.

Ninigi, when Amaterasu had finished speaking, rose from his stone seat and with his entourage, majestically separated the clouds, descended to the Bridge of Heaven from where he finally arrived at the high mountain Takachiho, situated in southern Japan in the province of Tsukushi. They then proceeded to the penninsula Kasasa, which much pleased the God Ninigi. "This land is located opposite Kara (Korea). The sun shines in the morning as well as the evening. This land is very good."

Ninigi soon built a palace and took a wife, Konohana-Sukuya-hime, the daughter of the local deity Oyamatsumi. This couple had three sons, Gideru-no-mikoto, Hosuseri-no-mikoto, and Hiko-Hohodemi-no-mikoto.

These gods are linked with a whole series of episodes and legends not concerned with the principal line of the narration.

The God Hiko-Hohodemi-no-mikoto had a son named Ugaya-fuki-aezu-no-mikoto, born prematurely when the roof of the chambers alloted to the lying-in women was not quite finished. Nonetheless, this god became known as the father of the first Emperor of Japan—Jimmu, with whose reign began the era of man. The mythological part of the Kojiki ends here.

…. .

The Soviet Professor N. I. Conrad [Japanese Literature in Images and Sketches, 1927] gives the following scheme of the mythology of the Kojiki:

1. The struggle for heaven (Amaterasu and Susanoo).

2. The struggle for earth (Ookuni-nushi and Takemi-kazuchi).

3. The struggle on earth (Jimmu and Naga-sunehiko).

We must add the struggle between the gods began first under the earth and only afterwards passed to the heaven. Moreover, we must notice that the gods do not only combat each other but also cooperate. Incidently, the last factor plays a prominent part in the development of the happenings in the myth. Generally, such purely external schemes are subject to a common fault—the lack of indication of the character of the conflicting and cooperating gods.

Therefore, we offer our own scheme where we take into account all these factors which include all the contents beginning with the appearance of the Gods Izanagi and Izanami and closing with the campaign of the Emperor Jimmu into interior of land of Yamato. This scheme is broken into two parts. (1) Cooperation and conflict of the god of heaven with the goddess of the volcanoes during the process of the creation of the world, and (2) Cooperation and rivalry of the heavenly and the volcanic heirs in the process of the creation of the Japanese Empire.

To the first part of the scheme belongs the struggle under the earth and the second part comprises the struggle for the heaven and earth. Looking at this scheme in detail we find a full analogy between the birth of the universe and the creation of the Japanese Empire. To show this similarity we have divided the material for comparison into two columns:

1. As a result of the matrimony of the heavenly God Izanagi with the Goddess Izanami, goddess of volcanoes, the Japanese islands are born.

2. After the creation of the Japanese islands, a struggle develops out of which the heaven-god emerges victorious.

3. Having overpowered the goddess of the volcanoes, the god of heaven finishes the creation of the world.

1. As a result of a kind of matrimony between the sun goddess and the volcano God Susanoo, heavenly heirs are born, among them Ninigi, the heavenly ancestor of the first Emperor.

2. After the birth of the Emperor's ancestor, the parents quarrel and the Goddess of Heaven emerges victorious.

3. Having vanquished the volcano god Ookuninushi, the goddess of heaven completes the creations of the Japanese Empire.

We met with the same principal of cooperation and struggle during the whole length of the myth of the creation of the Empire. So the volcanic heir of Ookuninushi cooperates with the heavenly descendant, dwarfgod Sunabiko, and at the same time struggles with other heavenly heirs, which require from him the surrender of his Empire. After that the heavenly heir, the Emperor Jimmu, makes war on the wicked gods, who multiplied during the weeping and rioting of the volcanic God Susanoo and therefore had a connection with the volcanic elements. But here we must make a digression and talk about the marriage of the same Emperor with the daughter of the God Ookuni-nushi, who was born out of his arrow. We ask ourselves what the above mentioned god has accomplished to allow him to become a member of the Emperor's family? The commentator of the Kojiki, Professor Sugita, leaning on the Nihongi, compares the God Oomono-nushi to the God Ookuni-nushi, who built a temple to the above named god in Yamato. All this data forces one to think that Oomono-nushi and Ookuni-nushi are one and the same person. The conclusion one draws is that the Emperor married the daughter of volcano-god Ookuni-nushi. It means that the Emperor is not an exception among the other heavenly gods and like them, he struggles and cooperates with the the volcanic gods.

Moreover, during the expedition of the same Emperor into the depths of the country of Yamato there is an episode which reminds us of the struggle of the gods in the land of darkness. The Emperor Jimmu, after discussion with his elder brother Itsuse, decides to undertake an expedition to the land of Yamato where, evidently, the principal forces of the wicked gods were situated. During one outflanking movement, when the army was near the village of Kumano, there suddenly appeared something like a huge bear, which disappeared at once. As a result of this unexpected vision which the soldiers could not see clearly, the whole army and the Emperor himself fell unconscious on the ground. One has to suppose that they would never have returned to life if it had not been for the liberating sword of Amaterasu, which she sent through the earthly God Taka-Kurashi. And here an episode occurs which points to the accumulation of the wicked gods in this vicinity. All the wicked gods living in the hills around the village of Kumano, suddenly are found cut to pieces.

In connection with this narration arises the question, what kind of bear was this, the mere sight of which renders a whole army unconscious? The sentence which interests us is usually read like this: "And suddenly appeared a vision of a huge bear…." An ancient scholar Norinaga supposes this is a mistake of the copyist who failed to use Chinese characters. In substituting these characters the result is: "And suddenly a huge bear came out of the mountains …" Chamberlain translates this controversial sentence according to the explanation of Norinaga, " … a large bear came out of the mountain and forthwith disappeared into it."

It appears from the works of Norinaga and Chamberlain that the tale is about an ordinary bear. But it is difficult to agree with them. Really, if it were an ordinary bear, how could it bring about the mowing down of a whole army? It is quite evident that we have before us not an ordinary beast, but some wicked being in the image of a bear. Yasumaru, in his introduction to the Kojiki, is of the same opinion. Briefly, we have before us some powerful and wicked god, because only such a being could produce such a frightening effect.

Professor Sugita supposes that the bear is a local god of Kumano, whose power depends on the oppressive feeling created by the wild and stern aspect of the adjacent mountains.¹ It must be noted that in the Nihongi, instead of a bear, a wicked God Nishi-kitobe appears. He halts the army of the heavenly heirs with his poisonous breath. Following this variation some scholars supplement the Kojiki and say that the bear affected the army merely by his destructive breath. The expression ka-yu supports also the opinion that here we have no ordinary bear. The expression ka-yu used in the original literally means the were-bear. And so if we take into account all these considerations we will come to the conclusion that one powerful wicked god, out of a number of them dwelling in the dark and wild region of Kumano, turned into a bear and poisoned the army of the Emperor Jimmu by his poisonous breathing.

But we know from the previous record that the wicked gods are connected with the volcanic elements and so we may say that behind the myth of the bear is hidden quite a realistic happening. The army of the heavenly descendants entered an area where they were poisoned by volcanic gas and evaporation emanating from the fissures of the earth. And when an especially dense and poisonous cloud of gas rose, taking the contours of a huge bear, the whole army swallowed so much of the poisonous gas that it lost consciousness.

In the collision of the army of the Emperor Jimmu with the monster, we find hidden the same volcanic motif that appears in the struggle of the gods in the land of Yomi. As the God Izanagi, before the completion of the creation of the world, undergoes a bitter struggle with demons of the land of Yomi, so the Emperor Jimmu, before completing the foundation of the Empire is subject to an attack of the monster werebear on the site of Kumano. One would say that the Kojiki is built up symmetrically.

In conclusion, let us site one more example of cooperation and struggle of the heavenly and volcanic gods. We mean the episode with the unruly God Amewakahiko. Ajisuki is the son of Ookuni-nushi and therefore is a volcanic descendant. Ame-waka-hiko is a heavenly god, who took sides with the terrestrial gods and afterwards was pierced by his own returning arrow. The parents of the deceased god built a mausoleum and began a rite with the birds to resuscitate him. Just at this moment Ajisuki, like Susanoo when in heaven, lierally and without cause, begins to be noisy. He chases away the birds and destroys the grave itself, annihilating, therefore, the right of resuscitation. On the surface we see before us a simple riot, a debauché. It would be such in essence if the rite of resuscitation were not involved. This changes the whole meaning. The soul of the deceased stays near its grave and is somehow tied to it. It wants to return to the body and animate it, but the destruction of the mausoleum stands in its way, just as the rock Chibiki-iwa prevented the Goddess Izanami from returning to the earth. In this sense the behaviour of Ajisuki is not a simple violence, but the struggle of the volcanic god with the dead heavenly god. They were friends and had cooperated, but still the struggle motif came up, although after the death of the god Ame-waka-hiko. In that way we encounter in different combinations the manifestations of the same principles of cooperation and struggle of the heavenly and volcanic gods.

And so the Emperor like the universe emerges as the result of interaction and reciprocal actions of the gods expressing analogous cosmic origins. This unity of the creation of world and state causes us to suppose that ancient man looked at the latter as the crown of creation.

The Empire grows out of the Cosmos as a plant from a seed, and so it is quite suitable to the country forming an organic whole. It is just this feeling of the complete fusion of the Empire with the cosmos of the country that, according to the Kojiki, creates the mysticism of the state and heavenly heirs.

Here we can touch the question put by Professor Tsuda as to why a "violent man" was given the right to become the ancestor of the Emperors. In Susanoo, as we mentioned before, is laid down the character of a volcano, whose fate in nature is to riot. That is why, seeing in the violence in heaven not the result of wicked will but the natural demonstration of the power of a wildly violent nature, the myth does not pay any serious attention to the violence.

As soon as we agree with the widespread view that Susanoo is simply a violent man, behind whom no cosmic origin is hidden, his part in birth of the Emperor's ancestors and his behaviour in general, will acquire the character of a caprice of events. But Susanoo is the god of the volcanic element and in this circumstance is contained not only the key for the understanding of his character, but also for the understanding of the state of the heavenly descendants in general and of the mythology of the Kojiki in its whole.

The Empire, according to the Kojiki, is not only a social-political institution but first of all an institution of nature, created by the gods, as nature itself. The Emperor, the people, and the country (in the sense of state and cosmos), constitute one unity, one family. This point of oneness is the most original and deep affirmation of the Kojiki. The Empire is an institution of nature and therefore naturally, owing to the inner connection the emperors receive the fullness of nature's gifts to their country.

Japan is the Land of the Rising Sun and therefore the Emperors are the descendants of the sun. Japan is also a country of great volcanoes and therefore Susanoo, the god of volcanoes, is destined to be the ancestor of the Emperors. Japan in addition is the country of blue seas and therefore the genealogical tree of the Emperor contains a sea-branch in the person of the sea princess—the mother of the God Ugayafuki who is the father of the Emperor Jimmu.

We must look in the same manner at the sacred relics which the goddess hands over to her grandson Ninigi upon his departure to earth. A necklace which reminds one of the emerald chain of the Japanese islands is given a symbol that the Japanese Empire is an institution which like nature itself is eternal and invincible.

In this sense, it might be said that the words of Amaterasu—"the Empire will exist eternally, as long as heaven and earth exist"—are not poetic hyperbola but an exact expression of the world consciousness of the myth, which says that the Empire and the country are one.

An analogical comparison of the stones of the necklace and chain of islands is recorded in the ancient prayer to the ruler of the land of Izumo, which contains this behest to the Emperor. "With a unifying hand let him rule the Country of Eight Great Islands, just as these green stones are joined in a beautiful necklace …"²

A mirror is given. It is given as sign that the soul of the Empire is the heavenly soul of the sun, the soul of a goddess imprisoned in the mirror, and also as a sign that the power of the Emperor is a source of life for the people, as is the sun for the whole earth.

The idea that the Empire was created from interaction of the same principals that created the world, can be perceived in different Norito in which the heavenly gods are represented not only as pacifying the chaoticminded gods but as elements of nature itself. So in the Norito for expelling gods which persecute by misfortunes, we read: "Then, following the orders of the Heavenly gods, a council was held again and two gods were sent to the earth. They dispersed all the unruly gods ands and pacified them, made silent the reverberating rocks and tree-stumps, and made silent the grasses to the last blade."³

The first part of the invocation of the pacifying of the unruly gods who created disorder on earth, is easy to understand. But how can we approach the second half, which tells of a kind of punitive expedition against the inanimate elements of nature? A belief which attributes to such elements a wicked will and a capacity to get out of the rut of established order, can be found in the ancient literature of other peoples too. The book of Enoch, penned by an unknown Jew who lived in Jerusalem about 200 B.C., tells the story of disobedient stars which appeared in the sky at a wrong time. God punished them by shutting them in a prison which resembled a huge precipice.

But the basic idea of the above mentioned Norito, as we said, conceals a volcanic motif. The disorder in nature is not a result of the ill will of its elements, but of the debauchery of volcanic elements acting not against, but in accordance with their own laws. The elements run loose beyond all measure in incessant earthquakes prevent the heavenly descendants from stepping down to the earth and beginning the creation and organization of the state. Therefore, first of all it is necessary to keep in check the elements, limiting their manifestations to acceptable forms.

It is with this aim that the punitive expedition, in the person of the heavenly gods Futsu-nishi and Takamiko-zushi, is sent. We must add that for ancient man the picture of cosmic disorder was not a simple metaphor or poetic hyperbole, but the expression of forces which were quite real happenings. Listening to the tale of the Norito relating the subduing of the raging elements, the ancients admired their deeds, but rejoiced at the victory of the heavenly gods, which made life on earth possible.

Here it is opportune to remember the episode of the God Sarudabiko. This god appears at the crossing of the eight Heavenly Roads just at the time when the God Ninigi is ordered to descend to the earth. The appearance of some unknown god who began to shine in the lands of Takama no hara above and Ashiwaranakatsu-kuni below creates alarm in heaven, as can be seen in the words of the Goddess Amaterasu to Usume: "Although you are a weak woman, you will not be frightened by the oncoming god, therefore go and ask him 'who is it blackening the path by which our son intends to descend from heaven to the earth."⁴

The "strange" god answered the question of Usume, saying he was Sarudabiko, the god of earth and he had come to meet the heavenly god whom he had heard was coming to the earth. He wished to lead him to earth and serve him there. The services of the God Sarudabiko are accepted benevolently and the Goddess Usume was ordered to accompany him after his decent to his land. Further the myth tells us that the God Sarudabiko was drowned in the sea when his hand came into contact with a shell which jammed his finger.

The God Sarudabiko is an earthly god. It is quite probable that he is connected with the volcanoes, because what other god could shine over sky and earth? His volcanic character is indicated by the alarm in the heaven. After Susanoo's riot, a volcanic god suddenly appearing in the sky was generally looked upon with suspicion. The question naturally arose as to whether this god came, as his brother of elements, to make a scandal and thus prevent the descent of the heavenly heirs to earth. The concern of the heavenly gods is well founded as the pacifying of the unruly volcanic gods had just recently been completed. The death of Sarudabiko in an element hostile to fire, also supports our supposition. If so, the myth of the God Sarudabiko acquires quite a special meaning.

The heavenly gods tamed the formidable volcanic element which by the orgies provoked chaos on the earth. The volcanoes quieted down and only the redness of the sky mirrored in the clouds remains. Not the fires of riot, but welcoming fires to light the way for the ruler of earth.

From this we see that the episode with the God Sarudabiko does not stand alone, but has an inner connection with all the previous events of the myth. In the course of time the volcanic basis of the myth, lending a coherence to all its happenings, was forgotten and the Kojiki naturally began to appear not as an integral work which was cast out of the secret depths of a people's soul, but as a collection of pretentious myths and legends.

To end the episode of the God Sarudabiko let us look at his appearance. Painters always depict him with a straight and long nose, resembling the handle of a tea pot and giving him a comical aspect. Sarudabiko's exterior really seems "strange" to the heavenly gods, but still it provokes not laughter, but alarm. Therefore, we think it not necessary to give Sarudabiko a comical aspect. Sarudabiko is a volcanic god … but we do not know how Japanese painters represent a volcanic god. We have images of blue and red Oni (dragons) at the exhibitions, but never a representation of the god of volcanoes. The descent of the heavenly heirs indicates the reconciliation of the earth with heaven, of the volcanoes with the sun. The external image of the God Sarudabiko not only reveals his volcanic character but also corresponds to the importance and solemnity of the moment.

Myths about heavenly origin of state power can be found among other peoples. A similar motif constitutes the contents of the Mongolian legend of Geshir-Pogdo. But the peculiarity of the Japanese myth consists in the just fact that the heavenly origin of the Emperors show not only their greatness but also the vital necessity of their power. In the sense of the myth and the Norito the Emperors appear as the heirs of the heavenly creator gods because they concluded the creation of the world, bringing order in the cosmos. Here we have before us the manifestation of the same method of creation by inter-action of the heavenly and volcanic origins by the organization and suppression of the volcanic chaos.

Thus we may say that according to the Kojiki, the formation of the state, as the creation of the first men in the Bible, is the direct sequel and conclusion of the creation of the world. In that sense the Kojiki is an organic work, revolving around only one subject. The unifying basis of the events of the myth is brought about not by one god, as is written in the first book of Genesis, but by the relations of the heavenly and volcanic gods, the result of which brought about the world and the state. The subject of the book of Genesis is the origin of the world and mankind, whereas the subject of the Kojiki is the origin of the world and the state. But if we advance the thesis that the Kojiki is an organic work, the events of which are connected internally with each other, we present an opinion in complete opposition to the scholars who maintain that the Kojiki is a collection of different myths and legends lacking internal connection. Thus Professor Takasu remarks: "The Kojiki, of course, is not constructed organically, it does not have a so-called 'line of narration,' but taking each part separately, we see that every one of them represents a quite finished legend or myth."⁵

Professor Doi says nearly the same, supposing that the myth about the creation of the world has no connection with the events in the Kojiki, but has been mechanically added later. Besides, the same scholar remarks that the basic materials of the Kojiki is for the most part, of foreign origin.⁶

There are really foreign myths in the Kojiki. Take for instance the legend of the sick hare. In this legend crocodiles (wani) appear which do not exist in Japan. Also the myth about the Gods Hoderi and Hiko, who could not divide their marine and mountainous fortunes, are similar to the legend of the last fish hook, which is widespread among the tribes of Indonesia. Such legends and myths form a multi-colored design which obscures the general line of narration in the Kojiki. Studying the principal events of the myth we can see all of them generating from the same principal—the principal of the creation of the world developed from a compulsory necessity. The god of heaven in the process of cooperation and struggle with the goddess of volcanoes, creates the world and the Japanese islands. The earth is created, but it bears traces of its volcanic birth, which appear in very strong earthquakes and eruptions. In such an order, or disorder, of affairs, it is difficult to exist on earth, and still more, to build a state on it. It is necessary to calm the volcanic manifestations, to confine them to firm limits, or, as says the In Praise of the Ruler of the Land of Izumo—"this land, let it be pacified and become a land of peace." Hence of necessity comes the intervention of the heavenly gods and their descendants into the affairs of the earth, as only they possess the gift for pacifying and organizing the volcanic elements. It is just this property of the heavenly gods which predestines the general order of creating the world and the state.

The Empire of the heavenly descendants is born out of volcanic chaos. The world is born out of the same chaos—this is doubtless the most striking and original characteristic of the Japanese myth.

But if the events of the myth develop out of the same origin, then what is the Kojiki—a collection of poetry? The Kojiki is a grandoise poem like an ancient building of a majestic style. An ivy, too luxuriously growing, masks its symmetrical contours and gives a wrong idea of its symmetrical contours and gives a wrong idea of its architecture. But as soon as we take away this twining cover, the harmony of the style will strike our eye.

Notes

¹ He told us that his own impression was, that it is probably the most sinister place in all the mountains of Japan.

² In praise of the ruler of the land of Izumo (Izumo kuni no miyatsuko no kami Yogoto)—translation by M. P. Grigorieff. Cited from the manuscript.

³Norito for expelling the gods, pursuing with misfortunes—M. P. Grigorieff, Tokyo, 1931.

⁴ Translation by M. P. Grigorieff. We cite his manuscript.

⁵Nihon Meisho Kaidan (Popular exposition of the best known works of Japanese Literature), p. 12.

⁶ Professor Doi, Introduction to Japanese literature.