Louhi gives Ilmarinen three tasks to perform: to plow a field of snakes, to capture a bear and a wolf, and to catch a great pike. Ilmarinen performs these tasks. Since Väinämöinen is old, Louhi’s daughter chooses Ilmarinen for her husband. There is great rejoicing at the marriage. Väinämöinen sings for the bridal couple. A gigantic ox is slain and mead is brewed, and the bride and groom are both instructed in the duties of marriage. At last Ilmarinen takes his new bride to his home in the south.

Lemminkäinen is not invited to the festivities because of his quarrelsome nature, and he is therefore angry. Although his mother warns him of the dangers he will have to face on the journey and of Louhi’s treachery, he insists on going to Pohjola. With his magic charms he is able to overcome all dangers along the way. In Pohjola, Louhi tries to kill him with snake-poisoned ale, but Lemminkäinen sees through the trick. Then he and Louhi’s husband engage in a duel of magic that ends in a tie. Finally they fight with swords and Lemminkäinen slays Louhi’s husband. Lemminkäinen then turns into an eagle and flies home. In fear of retribution he takes his mother’s advice and goes to live for several years on an obscure island where the only inhabitants are women whose warrior husbands are away from home.

Forced to flee when the time comes for the husbands to return, Lemminkäinen sets out for his own land in a boat. The craft turns over and he is forced to swim to shore. Upon arriving home, he finds the country desolate and his mother missing. At last he discovers her hiding in the forest. Swearing to avenge himself on the warriors of Pohjola who desolated the land, he sets sail with Tiera, a warrior companion, but Louhi sends the frost to destroy him. Although Lemminkäinen manages to charm the frost, he and his companion are shipwrecked and forced to retreat.

The wife of Kalervo is carried off by her brother-in-law, Untamoinen, who then lays waste to Kalervo’s land. In the cradle, Kullervo, born to Kalervo’s wife, swears to be avenged on his uncle. Kullervo grows up strong, but so stupid and clumsy that he breaks or ruins everything he touches. He tries to kill his uncle and his uncle tries to kill him. Finally, the uncle gives him to Ilmarinen. Ilmarinen’s wife immediately dislikes the boy and gives him a loaf of bread with a stone in it. In return, while Ilmarinen is away from home, Kullervo has her killed by wild beasts. He then flees into the forest, where he finds his parents and lives with them for a long time. He performs all his chores badly. After a time he sets out on a journey. Two women having refused him, he rapes a third, only to learn that she is his sister. In anguish, she kills herself, and Kullervo returns home in sorrow. When his family rejects him, he sets off to attack Untamöinen. After killing his uncle he returns to find his family dead and the countryside desolate. He wanders off into the forest and kills himself by falling on his sword.

Ilmarinen, after weeping for his dead wife, makes up his mind to make another in his forge. He fashions a woman out of gold and silver, but she remains cold and lifeless; so Ilmarinen goes north again to Pohjola. When Louhi refuses to give him a wife, he abducts one of her daughters. This wife soon proves unfaithful, and in anger he turns her into a seagull.

Väinämöinen is thinking about the Sampo, that magic mill. Determined to steal it from Louhi, he builds a ship and Ilmarinen forges a sword for him, and the two heroes start for Pohjola. On the way Lemminkäinen calls to them from the shore and asks to accompany them. They take him along. During the voyage the boat strikes a giant pike. Väinämöinen kills the great fish and from its bones fashions a harp with which he sings everyone in Pohjola to sleep. With the help of an ox the three heroes take the Sampo and sail for home. When Louhi awakens, she sends fog and wind after the heroes. During the storm Väinämöinen’s harp falls overboard.

Louhi and her men follow in a war boat. The two boats meet in a great battle. Although Väinämöinen is victorious, Louhi drags the Sampo from his boat into the lake. There it breaks into pieces, most of which sink to the bottom. Only a few smaller pieces float to shore. After making violent threats against Kalevala, Louhi returns home with only a small and useless fragment of the Sampo. Väinämöinen collects the pieces on the shore and plants them for good luck; the land becomes more fruitful. Having searched in vain for his lost harp, Väinämöinen makes another of birchwood, and his songs to its music give joy to everyone.

Vexed because her land is barren after the loss of the Sampo, Louhi sends a terrible pestilence to Kalevala, but Väinämöinen heals the people by magic and salves. Next Louhi sends a great bear to ravish the herds, but Väinämöinen kills the savage beast. Then Louhi steals the moon and the sun, which came down to earth to hear Väinämöinen play and sing. She also steals the fire from all the hearths of Kalevala. When Ukko, the supreme god, kindles a new fire for the sun and the moon, some of it falls to earth and is swallowed by a fish in a large lake. Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen finally find the fish, and Ilmarinen is badly burned. The fire escapes and burns a great area of country until it is at last captured and returned to the hearths of Kalevala. Ilmarinen, recovered from his burns, prepares great chains for Louhi and frightens her into restoring the sun and the moon to the heavens.

Marjatta, a holy woman and a virgin, swallows a cranberry, whereupon a son is born to her in a stable. The child is baptized as the king of Carelia, despite Väinämöinen’s claim that such an ill-omened child should be put to death. Angered because the child proves wiser than he, Väinämöinen sails away to a land between the earth and the sky, leaving behind him, for the pleasure of his people, his harp and his songs.

The Kalevala played a significant role in Finland's journey toward independence, embodying the cultural aspirations of the nationalist era in Finnish history (1809-1917).

In Search of a National Identity
The year 1809 was pivotal for Finland. After the Napoleonic wars of 1808-09, Finland became an autonomous Grand Duchy under Russian rule, a separate political entity with its own government, though still under the czar's ultimate control.

For six centuries before this shift, Sweden had governed Finland, and the people in the central Turku area had assimilated so deeply into Swedish culture that many identified as Swedes. Despite over 85% of the population continuing to speak Finnish, Swedish had long been the official language for administration, education, and literature. With their Swedish ties abruptly severed and little connection to their new Russian rulers, Finland's educated class faced an identity crisis.

Ethnic identity seemed to be defined by exclusion. As a saying from that time captured, "we are not Swedish; we can never become Russians; let us therefore be Finns." Educated Finns sought a national identity that would command respect and place them on an equal footing with the other civilized European nations. However, lacking their own literature, history, and familiarity with their country's language and traditions, they struggled to establish such an identity.

Romanticism
A group of scholars from the University of Turku, influenced by Romanticism, embarked on a mission to rebuild a Finnish national consciousness. This movement, associated with German scholar Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803), suggested that culture is an organic unity emerging from a people's interaction with their unique ecological surroundings. "Herder claimed that a people's character expressed itself in the form of folk poetry and other cultural systems, which thereby took on the aspect of a mirror of the national soul." (Friberg, p. 16) Romanticism thus turned to the Folk—peasants living in secluded rural areas, least affected by external influences and modern changes—as the bedrock of national consciousness.

Herder's concepts resonated with what Finnish professor Henrik Gabriel Porthan (1739-1804) had been teaching at the University of Turku. Porthan believed the essence of Finnish identity could be found in the peasants' oral traditions. He encouraged students to gather folklore to recover the ancient cultural unity disrupted and obscured by historical upheavals and foreign dominance. His teachings motivated a group of students to use their linguistic and historical skills to reclaim cultural heritage. Among these "Turku Romanticists" was Elias Lonnrot, who would eventually compile the Kalevala.

Romantic nationalism had already begun to influence intellectual circles, but the uncertainty caused by the 1809 annexation intensified the scholarly pursuit of a Finnish national identity. "After Finland became a Grand Duchy within the Russian Empire in 1809, interest in Herder's and Porthan's ideas among Finns increased significantly. Cultivating a national identity became an essential task for many educated Finns, even though most of them barely understood the Finnish language." (Michael Branch, 1985)

A National Epic
Ironically, when the Kalevala was first published in 1835, many Finns had to rely on a Swedish translation to read it. Despite this, they recognized its significance and embraced it for what it symbolized. Instantly, Lonnrot's national epic provided Finns with what they had been missing: a rich and adaptable literary language, a heroic and ancient past, and a connection to their land. It motivated people to learn Finnish and fueled nationalist ambitions among "those who, captivated by the brilliance and splendor of our people's ancient songs and ballads, dared to believe in the potential of the Finnish nation and boldly began to establish the foundations of an intellectually independent Finnish people." (236)

Towards Independence
As one of the earliest books written in Finnish, the Kalevala endowed Finns with a language that was not only suitable for literature but also admired internationally, with some foreigners even attempting to replicate the Kalevala's poetic meter. To "a nation yearning for self-expression" (Karner, p. 160), the Kalevala served as a template for a burgeoning literature. Works in Finnish, which had previously been censored, started to emerge, many carrying a nationalistic tone.

The Kalevala played a crucial role in the Finnish Language Movement, promoting national unity and democracy. If the peasants held the essence of ethnic identity, then the elites had to learn Finnish to partake in that cultural heritage. Previously, social divisions were based on language; the upper and middle classes were separated from the peasants. However, the Kalevala became a shared cultural touchstone for all Finns, including rural communities who saw their own lives mirrored in the poems. Consequently, the Kalevala bridged both language and class divides, overturning the bias that deemed the Finnish language inferior. As "people from different social classes began to collaborate for the common cause of Finnish culture," the liberal, democratic ideals of equality were also reinforced (Karner, p. 160).

In the mid-19th century, the Finnish Language Movement made notable progress despite facing opposition from the pro-Swedish faction. This group argued that the Swedish-speaking elite in central Finland formed a separate nationality and claimed Swedes were racially superior to Finns. In 1858, the first Finnish-language secondary school was established. The Kalevala started being included in the curriculum, and by 1863, the czar was convinced to grant Finnish equal official status with Swedish in the Grand Duchy.

Russification and Resistance
Initially, Russian authorities supported Finland's emerging nationalism, seeing it as a way to weaken the Duchy's lingering ties to Sweden. However, in the 1890s, Czar Nicholas II changed this approach and launched a Russification campaign. His goal was the full integration of all Russian empire territories, including Finland. The February Manifesto of 1899 marked a turning point, as Russia seized Finland's right to self-governance, declared Russian the official language, disbanded the Finnish military, and enforced conscription of Finnish men into the Russian army.

This led to immediate unrest in the country. The Kalevala had sparked European interest in Finnish independence, and European intellectuals supported the nationalist cause with a petition to the Czar called "Pro Finlandia." Ironically, the epic alienated the Finnish church. The clergy viewed the Kalevala as pagan and tried to suppress the growing interest in folk poetry and pre-Christian myths. Because nationalists drew much inspiration from the Kalevala, the church opposed them and supported the czar's Russification policies.

Nevertheless, the years spent fostering ethnic unity had equipped Finns to confront the Russification crisis. Achievements from this era, such as universal suffrage and the availability of higher education in Finnish, laid the groundwork for resistance. This led to violence, anti-Russian protests, and a general strike, as the fight against assimilation persisted through World War I.

On December 6, 1917, following Russia's Bolshevik revolution, the Finnish Parliament declared the nation independent, and Lenin acknowledged the new nation one month later. Over a century, with the aid of its national epic, Finland both discovered and forged its identity.

For further details on the Kalevala's influence in the Finnish independence movement, refer to Tracy X. Karner's article, "Ideology and Nationalism: The Finnish Move to Independence, 1809-1918," Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, April 1991, pp. 153-169. Also, see Eino Friberg's introduction to the Kalevala (1988) and Lauri Honko's "The Kalevala Process," Folklife Annual 1986, pp. 66-79.

Compilation
In 1835, Elias Lonnrot expressed, "Even while reading the previously collected songs, particularly those gathered by Ganandre, I often wondered if it might be possible to discover songs about Vainamoinen, Ilmarinen, Lemminkainen, and other notable ancestors of ours. Perhaps, from these, we could compile longer narratives, similar to how the Greeks [in the Homeric poems] and the Icelanders [in the Poetic or Elder Edda] gathered songs of their ancestors." During his research journeys, Lonnrot encountered hundreds of short poems (a typical Finnish rune or epic song spans 50-400 lines and focuses on a single event), which he found to be incompletely preserved. Many parts had been forgotten, and often, Christian elements had replaced original names and themes. His goal was to take these altered and corrupted poems and, by comparing as many versions as possible, attempt to reconstruct the most authentic versions.

In traditional Finnish rune-singing or chanting, two singers would sit together, holding hands, while a third person played a kantele, a stringed musical instrument. The first singer would sing a line, and the second would respond, both swaying back and forth in time with the music. During his research, Lonnrot would sit nearby, transcribing their words by hand.

Lonnrot did not create the Kalevala from complete poems; researchers have established that he used only a few lines from each song variant. People of his time joked that he pieced these fragments together like a tailor (Lonnrot's father was a tailor). Others likened his work to that of a mosaic-maker. As Domenico Caparetti noted in 1891, Lonnrot's method was akin to that of the folk performers he documented, but he used pen and paper instead of voice or kantele to narrate his stories.

Plot Structure
Lonnrot imposed a thematic framework and coherence on the Kalevala to make it similar to existing epic literature. One plot device he introduced was the escalating conflict between Pohjola and Kalevala. For unity's sake, Lonnrot also altered names and often merged several characters into one.

Lonnrot has been compared to the ancient Greeks who crafted the Homeric epics; however, unlike the Aeneid, Iliad, and Odyssey, the Kalevala is set entirely on Earth and features a predominantly human cast. Since Lonnrot was more focused on human history than divine activities, he emphasized the historical and realistic aspects of the poetry, minimizing the Christian and mythological content.

Formulas and Repetition
Although he reworked the runes into a single lengthy literary piece, Lonnrot preserved all the poetic features of his oral sources, including stock epithets and formulas, which are "oral fossils" possibly dating back 2000 years. These formulas include frequently repeated phrases like the Iliad's "wine-dark sea" or the Kalevala's "Steady old Vainamoinen, Eternal Sage." A typical aspect of oral composition, formulas aid singers in recalling the poems and maintaining the poetic metre of their performance.

Repetition, especially in threes, is a hallmark of Finnish oral poetry. The Kalevala abounds with triadic elements: it features three heroes, each representing a different trait—the wise elder Vainamoinen, the industrious craftsman Ilmarinen, and the impulsive young lover Lemminkainen. Each hero attempts to win the Maiden of the North, with their challenges always occurring in sets of three. Kullervo tries to woo three maidens during his journey home, and Louhi makes three attempts to destroy Kalevala, among other examples.

Parallelism
In the Kalevala, repetition often appears as parallelism, where one line or verse is followed by another that echoes the same idea with slightly varied wording: "Bring a trump from beyond, from / the pole of heaven yonder / bring a honey-trump from heaven / a mead-trump from mother earth." (32: 117-20) This type of repetition contributes to the distinctive rhythms and echoes that make Kalevala poetry both unique and challenging to replicate.

Lonnrot also uses motif parallelism, which imparts a sense of symmetry and harmony to the entire work. The sun and moon are eclipsed in both the second and the second-to-last poems; the breaking of the oak in Poem 2 mirrors the shattering of the Sampo in Poem 43, and Vainamoinen's birth at the epic's start is counterbalanced by his departure at the conclusion. These rhetorical techniques help maintain the thematic coherence and unity of Lonnrot's epic, preventing it from becoming a mere collection of disjointed poems.

Poetics
Finnish folk poetry is composed of eight-syllable trochaic lines, with a trochee being a two-syllable foot that emphasizes the first syllable. It is unrhymed and, like most oral poetry, heavily relies on alliteration, as demonstrated in the opening lines:

Mieleni minun tekevi, Aivoni ajaltelevi Lahteani laulamahan. Saa'ani sanelemahan, Sukuvinta suoltamahan, Lajivirlta* laulamahan

(Driven by an impulsive desire, By a powerful inner urging, I am now ready for singing, Ready to begin the chanting, Of our nation's ancient folk-song, Passed down from bygone ages).

For further details on the poetic techniques used in the Kalevala, refer to Robert Austerlitz's "The Poetics of the Kalevala," in Books from Finland, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1985, pp. 44-47. To learn more about Lonnrot's method of composition, consult Domenico Comparetti's "Conclusions," in his work Traditional Poetry of the Finns, translated by Isabella M. Anderton, Longmans, Green, and Co., 1898, pp. 327-59; reprinted in Classical and Medieval Literature Criticism, Vol. 6, Gale Research, pp. 219-227.

Kalevala Period (c. 500 B.C.-c. 1200 C.E.): During this era, the Finns lived in a society that was primarily classless and organized by tribes. These tribes, like the Kaleva and Pohjola tribes depicted in the epic, were composed of people connected through geography, culture, familial ties, and often a common ancestor. There was regular interaction among these tribes.

1800s: In the time of Lonnrot, Finland was under foreign rule by the Swedes. Finnish society was divided into two main groups: an urban, educated class that spoke Swedish as their primary language, and the rural majority who continued to speak Finnish.

Late twentieth century: Finland has become a modern, independent, and industrialized European nation. Its population shares a common language and culture, and the government operates as a socialist state.

Kalevala Period: Independent tribes sometimes engaged in warfare with neighboring tribes, utilizing weapons like swords and crossbows.

1800-1918: The Napoleonic wars led to Finland becoming a strategic pawn between Russia and Sweden. While still part of Sweden, Finland had to fend off Russian forces on its own. Eventually becoming part of Russia, Finnish men were often drafted into the Russian army. Finland faced a long struggle for independence, which was immediately followed by a civil war between opposing political groups.

Late twentieth century: Finland has been a peaceful, sovereign nation since 1917.

Kalevala Period: In a rural, agricultural setting, women worked alongside men. The Kalevala depicts a society where women were evaluated not by their appearance or manners, but by their ability to perform essential daily tasks like baking bread, preparing the sauna, or working in the fields.

1906: Finland became the first nation to grant women full political rights, electing nineteen women to parliament. Women have historically worked in Finland, and with industrialization, they took factory jobs, though often with lower wages than men.

Late twentieth century: Over 70% of Finnish women hold full-time employment, with women comprising 60% of the workforce in the public sector. The Finnish 1987 Equality Act prohibited gender discrimination at work. However, similar to the situation in America, the average salary for women remains lower than that for men, despite women under 40 being better educated than their male counterparts. In 1987, the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church began ordaining women as priests.

Before 1000: The Finns practiced paganism, worshipping numerous gods and nature spirits, and likely venerating deceased ancestors. Spells and incantations were common in daily life, used to avert bad luck, protect livestock, encourage crop growth, bless marriages, and appease nature spirits.

11th-13th centuries: Byzantine-Russian Orthodox Christianity spread to Finland from the east, while Roman Catholicism entered from the southwest. Many pagan practices were incorporated into Christian worship, with Catholic saints assuming the role of local guardian spirits, or haltijat, overseeing buildings, areas, and economic activities.

1800s: In the sixteenth century, Protestantism supplanted Catholicism, and by the 1800s, most Finns, including Lonnrot, were devoted Lutherans. However, many old pagan traditions continued to be practiced in rural Finland well into the early twentieth century.

Late twentieth century: While Finland remains predominantly Lutheran, it has become largely secular.

The music of Finnish composer Jean Sibelius (1865-1957) has introduced countless people outside Finland to the Kalevala. During the 1890s, Sibelius traveled to Karelia and was captivated by the local rune singers. He drew inspiration from Kalevala poems for many of his orchestral pieces. A list of his works is included in Keith Bosley's 1989 translation of the Kalevala. You can find recordings of Sibelius's music in the classical music sections of most record stores.

While the Kalevala has inspired numerous Finnish films and television shows, most have not been translated for English-speaking audiences. The 1959 film The Day the Earth Froze is based on the Sampo cycle and Louhi's theft of the sun and moon. It is dubbed in English and available on videocassette from J & J Video in Wmtedstone, NY. Known for its campy style, The Day the Earth Froze is likely familiar to American TV viewers as episode #422 of Mystery Science Theater 3000, produced by Comedy Central and originally aired on January 16, 1993.

The 1988 film Pathfinder, acclaimed by critics, originates from Lapland and, although not directly based on the Finnish epic, portrays a world similar in many respects to that of the Kalevala. It tells the story of a young Laplander trying to thwart the marauding Tchude tribesmen who destroyed his village. The film is grounded in a twelfth-century Lapp legend and features cultural elements familiar from the Kalevala: the shaman with his rituals, the sauna, the use of skis and crossbows, and small Arctic villages where people live by hunting and fishing. Directed by Nils Gaup, the film is in Saami (Lapp) with English subtitles, runs for 88 minutes, and is distributed by Fox Lorber Video.

Sources for Further Study
Aaltonen, Hilkka (compiler). Books in English on Finland: A Bibliographical List of Publications Concerning Finland until 1960, Including Finnish Literature in English Translation. Turku University Library, Turku, 1964.

This is a comprehensive, though unannotated, bibliography about Finland. While it is now dated, certain sections might still hold relevance.

Alfonso-Karkala, John B. "Transmission of Knowledge by Antero Vipunen to Vainamoinen in Kalevala and by Sukra to Kacha in Mahabharata," in Proceedings of the 7th Congress of the International Comparative Literature Association, Vol. 2, Comparative Literature Today: Theory and Practice, edited by Eva Kushner and Roman Struc, Kunst and Wissen, Erich Bieber, 1979, pp. 619-23.

Alfonso-Karkala explores the symbolism behind Vainamoinen's search for three magical words, proposing a Jungian interpretation of Antero Vipunen's character.

Bako, Elemer (compiler). Elias Lonnrot and his Kalevala: A Selective Annotated Bibliography with an Introduction to the National Epic of Finland Second Edition, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, 1985.

This twenty-nine-page bibliography, organized by topic, was published to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the Kalevala.

Books from Finland, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1985.

Books from Finland is a quarterly publication focused on Finnish literature. The first issue of 1985, titled "Kalevala 1935-1985," is dedicated entirely to the Kalevala, featuring numerous articles, essays, stunning illustrations, and suggestions for further reading.

Bosley, Keith (translator). The Kalevala. World's Classics Series, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989.

Bosley's 1989 edition is the latest English translation of the Kalevala, available in paperback. The introduction provides insights into the Kalevala's literary and historical background, summarizes the plot, and clarifies certain episodes and relationships within the poem.

Bradunas, Elena. "The Kalevala: An Introduction," Folklife Center News, October-December, 1984. Reprinted in Folklife Annual, 1986, pp. 64-65.

This two-page introduction to the Kalevala was written to commemorate the epic's 150th anniversary.

Branch, Michael. "Kalevala from myth to symbol," Books from Finland, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1985, pp. 1-8. Reprinted on the FINFO website [http://www.vn.fi/vn/um/finfo/english/kalevala html].

This is an excellent and easily accessible general introduction to the Kalevala.

Crawford, John Martin. The Kalevala, The Epic Poem of Finland, 2 volumes. John A. Berry & Company, New York, 1888.

Crawford's verse edition was the first complete English translation of the Kalevala, including a still-relevant preface on Finnish myths, language, and culture.

DuBois, Thomas. Finnish Folk Poetry and the Kalevala. New Perspectives in Folklore Series, Vol. 1. Garland Publishing, New York and London, 1995.

This scholarly work delves into the folk poetry and oral traditions that underpin and extend beyond Lonnrot's epic, offering sophisticated literary analysis and detailed discussions of specific poems.

"Elias Lonnrot," in Nineteenth-Century Literature Criticism, Vol. 53, pp. 304-341. Gale Research, Detroit, MI.

This source contains biographical details on Lonnrot, an excerpt from his Preface to the Old Kalevala, a diverse collection of reprinted modern criticism, some photographs, and an annotated bibliography.

FINFO: The Finland Information Pages [http://www.vn.fi/vn/um/finfo/findeng html]

FINFO is a component of the Virtual Finland Website [http://www.vn.fi/vn/um/index.html]. It is curated by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland (Department for Press and Culture, Information Service Unit) and offers a comprehensive collection of information about Finland, both historical and contemporary.

The Finnish Literature Forum [http://www.kaapeli.fi/flf/]

An online magazine offering Finnish fiction, essays, interviews, poetry, and reviews, all translated into English.

Finberg, Eino (translator). "The Kalevala, Epic of the Finnish People," Otava Publishing Company Ltd., Keuruu, Finland, 1988.

This recent verse translation of the Kalevala includes numerous full-page color illustrations and three introductory essays discussing the epic's historical importance, structure, and translation.

Hollo, Anselm. "The Kalevala through my years," Books from Finland, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1985, pp. 12-15.

A personal and partly humorous account of growing up with the Kalevala.

Honko, Lauri, editor. Religion, Myth, and Folklore in the World's Epics. Religion and Society Series, Number 30. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin and New York, 1990.

This compilation features articles on global epics, with many focusing on the Kalevala as epic literature and comparing it to epics from countries like Germany and China.

"The Kalevala Process," Folklife Annual, 1986, pp. 66-79.

In this article and others, Honko contends that the Kalevala is not just a single work but a poetic evolution that started long before the runes were documented, continuing as each generation reinterprets Finland's folk poetry to fit their needs. The article is illustrated with paintings of scenes from the Kalevala (courtesy of the Finnish embassy) and includes maps of Finland detailing Lonnrot's seven field expeditions.

Johnson, Aili Kolemainen (translator). Kalevala: A Prose Translation from the Finnish. The Book Concern, Hancock, Michigan, 1950.

A prose translation of the Kalevala, accompanied by concise notes and a glossary.

"Kalevala," in Classical and Medieval Literature Criticism, Vol. 6, pp. 206-288. Gale Research, Detroit, MI.

This work includes an introduction to the Kalevala, reprinted critical excerpts from authors between 1835 and 1989, several photographs, and an annotated bibliography.

Karner, Tracy X. "Ideology and nationalism: the Finnish move to independence, 1809-1918." Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, April 1991. Pages 152-169.

A thorough socio-historical analysis of the Kalevala's influence on Finland's path to nationhood.

Kirby, W. F. (translator). Kalevala the Land of Heroes. 2 vols. Everyman Series, London, 1907.

This is one of the more notable verse translations, maintaining the Finnish original's trochaic meter. Each poem is introduced with a short synopsis.

Lehtonen, Juhani U. "Finnish Folklore." Written for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland and published by FINFO [http://www.vn.fi/vn/um/finfo/english/folkleng.html]. May 1993.

A brief examination of how Finnish folklore has kept the memory of rural life and ancient traditions alive in the modern era.

Lockwood, Yvonne Hiipakka. "Immigrant to Ethnic Symbols of Identity Among Finnish-Americans," Folklife Annual, 1986, pp. 92-107.

Lockwood explores symbols that contribute to the cultural identity of Finnish-Americans, such as the sauna, Finnish cuisine, the Saint Urho festival, and the Kalevala.

Magoun, Jr., Francis Peabody (translator). The Kalevala or Poems of the Kaleva District. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1963.

Magoun enhances his prose translation with valuable appendices, including Lonnrot's original introductions to the 1835 and 1849 editions of the Kalevala, along with several scholarly essays on the epic.

The Old Kalevala and Certain Antecedents. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1969.

The so-called Old Kalevala (published in 1835) and the unpublished Proto-Kalevala represent earlier phases of Lonnrot's efforts, offering an intriguing comparison to the more recognized 1849 version. This version is commonly referred to as the Kalevala but was known during its time as the New Kalevala. The book also features portions of Lonnrot's 1927 dissertation on Vainamoinen, images of his manuscripts, and a map of his journeys.

"Materials for the Study of the Kalevala," in Ralph J. Jalkanen (editor), The Finns in North America: A Social Symposium. Michigan State University Press, Hancock, Michigan, 1969, pages 24-45.

This work includes a concise biography of Elias Lonnrot, an overview of the Kalevala's creation and publication, and suggestions for further research on its cultural importance.

Manninen, Merja. "The Status of Women in Finland." Written for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland and published by FINFO [http://www.vn.fi/vn/um/finfo/english/naiseng.html], 1996.

Provides a historical overview of women's rights in Finland from the early 1900s to the 1990s.

Oinas, Felix J. "The Balto-Finnic Epic," in Heroic Epic and Saga. An Introduction to the World's Great Folk Epics, edited by Felix J. Oinas, pp. 286-309. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1978.

Oinas analyzes the Kalevala as a shamanistic epic, discussing its themes, structure, stages of development, and the cultural environment from which it originated. He also provides a summary of Estonia's national epic, the Kalevipoeg.

Studies in Finnic Folklore: Homage to the Kalevala, Finnish Literature Society, Bloomington, Indiana, 1985.

Oinas aims to introduce English-speaking audiences to the rich tradition of Finnish, Estonian, Karelian, and Ingrian folklore. The book includes fourteen articles that explore various aspects of Finnic and Finno-Baltic poetry, offering a literary context for the Kalevala.

Pentikamen, Juha Y. "The Ancient Religion of the Finns.'' Written for the Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and published by FINFO [http://www.vn.fi/vn/um/flnfo/english/mumueng.html].

Pentikainen examines the history of Finnish settlement and explores the ancient traditions, rituals, and beliefs of the Finns' ancestors.

Kalevala Mythology. Translated and edited by Ritva Poom. Folklore Studies in Translation Series, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, 1989.

This clearly written, comprehensive study of the Kalevala offers English speakers an excellent introduction to many aspects of Lonnrot's epic. It includes maps, appendices, timelines, a bibliography, and photographs.

Puranen, Rauni (compiler). The Kalevala Abroad: Translations and Foreign-language Adaptations of the Kalevala Suomalaisen Kirjallisuudenseura, Helsinki, 1985.

An indexed list of foreign-language versions of the Kalevala up to 1985, covering thirty-three languages, from Armenian to Yiddish.

Sawin, Patricia E. "Lonnrot's Brainchildren: The Representation of Women in the Kalevala." Journal of Folklore Research, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1988. Pages 187-217.

Sawin contends that Lonnrot purposefully included adverse portrayals of women in the Kalevala to promote a nationalistic and patriarchal viewpoint. Men are depicted as the heroes of the epic, while women are either portrayed as self-sacrificing or malevolent.

Screen, J. E. O. Finland World Bibliographical Series, Vol. 31. Clio Press, Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981.

This work provides an annotated compilation of resources related to Finland up to 1981, categorized by subject, with a particular focus on history and the arts.

Timonen, Senni. "Lonnrot and His Singers," Books from Finland, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1985, pp. 24-29.

Timonen explores the roles of specific folk-singers in contributing to Lonnrot's epic, highlighting that these individuals, who provided Lonnrot with essential material and inspiration, are often underappreciated.

Wilson, William A. "The Kalevala and Finnish Politics," Journal of the Folklore Institute, Vol. 12, No. 2-3, 1975, pp. 131-55.

Wilson analyzes how Finland's political left and right during the early 20th century each attempted to reinterpret the Kalevala to align with their respective ideological beliefs.