Historical Context
Joe Turner
Part of a ten-play series chronicling the African-American experience in the
twentieth century, Wilson’s "Joe Turner’s Come and Gone" is deeply rooted in
history. It explores the lives of African Americans in the 1910s. Despite
slavery being officially outlawed, Joe Turner flagrantly violated the law by
forcibly enslaving African Americans on his plantation for seven years. As
Herald recounts, “Kept everybody seven years. He’d go out hunting and bring
back forty men at a time.” Historically, the name “Joe Turner” is a misnomer.
The W. C. Handy song that inspired Wilson’s play was titled "Joe Turner’s Come
and Gone," but the real person referenced was named “Joe Turney,” the brother
of Tennessee governor Pete Turney. This historical inaccuracy is seldom
addressed by critics, who generally continue to refer to him as “Turner.” This
oversight might be due to the fact that, aside from Wilson’s play and Handy’s
song, Turner’s actions are largely ignored. Jay Plum notes in his 1993
African American Review article, “Although the chain gang affected the
personal lives of many African Americans, traditional histories of the United
States make little or no mention of the phenomenon.”
Peonage
In addition to Turney’s blatant lawlessness, another form of slavery persisted
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries—peonage, or debt slavery.
Despite the federal government banning peonage with the 1867 Peonage Abolition
Act, Southern states enacted laws that tricked African Americans into signing
contracts that bound them to debt slavery. These contracts often appeared to be
opportunities to repay debts or court fines. Typically, a landowner would offer
to settle an African-American’s debt in exchange for labor on the landowner’s
farm. However, this arrangement was often a ruse, as landowners would charge
exorbitant room and board fees, trapping the individual in endless debt and
perpetual servitude. Although the ban on peonage was eventually enforced, the
first conviction of a landowner for peonage did not occur until 1901, and the
defendant was later pardoned by President Theodore Roosevelt. By 1911, when the
play is set, peonage was still widespread, even though a Supreme Court ruling
that same year declared state peonage laws unconstitutional.
The Great Migration
Even when African Americans were not enslaved, many still endured harsh,
slave-like conditions, especially in the South. Many newly emancipated slaves,
unable to find alternative employment, were compelled to work Southern lands as
sharecroppers or tenant farmers. Former slaves who became sharecroppers
typically rented a portion of a landowner’s land, cultivated it, and then
handed over a portion of the crop—or the earnings from selling the crop—to the
landowner. Although these African Americans were now compensated for their
labor, the payment was often insufficient to live on. In the play, Herald and
Martha are sharecroppers until Herald is kidnapped by Joe Turner. Upon his
release, Herald describes his attempt to resume his former life. Herald says:
‘‘I made it back to Henry Thompson’s place where me and Martha was
sharecropping and Martha’s gone. She taken my little girl and left her with her
mama and took off North.’’ When Herald decides to take Zonia and head North in
search of Martha, he becomes part of a larger movement of African Americans
migrating for various reasons. In her 1995 book, The Dramatic Vision of
August Wilson , Sandra G. Shannon discusses this significant northward migration of African Americans, known as the Great Migration. Shannon states: ‘‘The historical context out of which the play evolves includes a backdrop of frustrated sharecroppers; hundreds of unemployed, unskilled laborers; countless broken families; and a pervasive rumor of a better life up North.’’ This movement northward was one...
(This entire section contains 860 words.)
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of many migrations during the twentieth century, as numerous individuals moved from the rural South to Northern cities. Herald Loomis’s migration in the early twentieth century occurred just before a much larger movement, known as the ‘‘Great Migration,’’ which took place during World War I.
W. E. B. Du Bois and the NAACP
At the dawn of the twentieth century, W. E. B. Du Bois emerged as a pivotal
figure in African-American history. Earning his doctorate from Harvard
University in 1896, Du Bois made a significant impact with the publication of
his 1903 book, The Souls of Black Folk. In this influential work, he
openly criticized Booker T. Washington, a prominent black leader who advocated
for African Americans to endure discrimination and focus on self-education
instead. Du Bois's critique of Washington led to a division within the
African-American political community. Conservatives sided with Washington,
while more progressive individuals rallied behind Du Bois. In 1905, Du Bois
gathered nearly thirty African Americans in secret at Niagara Falls, Ontario,
to establish the Niagara Movement. This organization, formed to challenge
Washington’s conservative stance, did not attract a large following but
provided a platform for discussing civil rights issues. By 1909, the Niagara
Movement, guided by Du Bois, joined forces with a group of concerned white
allies to form the interracial organization, the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Since its inception, the NAACP has
played a crucial role, particularly through legal means, in advocating for
equal civil rights for African Americans.
Style and Technique
"Joe Turner's Come and Gone" by August Wilson serves as a powerful lens through which the complexities of African American life, identity, and history are examined. Wilson's work is recognized for its deep exploration of the African American experience, and this play is no exception, elegantly weaving themes of migration, self-discovery, and cultural heritage. The rich narrative unfolds primarily within a Pittsburgh boardinghouse, a microcosm of the broader societal changes occurring in early 20th-century America.
African American Drama
Wilson is celebrated as a leading figure in African American drama, with his body of work often depicting the struggles faced by African Americans in the United States. "Joe Turner's Come and Gone" fits within this canon as the third installment in Wilson's series of historical plays, each aiming to capture a different decade of the 20th century through the African American lens. The play specifically explores the 1910s, a period marked by the Great Migration, during which African Americans relocated from the South to the North seeking employment and freedom. As a character named Seth points out, "Word get out they need men to work in the mill and put in these roads... and niggers drop everything and head North looking for freedom." This narrative not only reflects the historical context but also highlights the recurring disappointments faced by these migrants, exemplified by Seth's struggle to prosper in a racially biased society.
Setting
Set in a Pittsburgh boardinghouse, the play effectively uses this confined space to explore the dynamics of a diverse group of characters. By focusing the action within this singular location, Wilson deepens the audience's understanding of each character's personal journey and struggles. Pittsburgh serves as a significant backdrop, symbolizing the hope of new opportunities for African Americans moving north. Yet, as the play illustrates, this hope is often dashed by the harsh reality of racism and economic disparity. Seth articulates this disillusionment, noting, "White fellows coming from all over the world. White fellow come over and in six months got more than what I got." The boardinghouse itself becomes a safe harbor and a place of potential healing, where characters converge and confront their pasts and aspirations.
Metaphor and Identity
Metaphors are woven throughout the play, adding layers of meaning and enhancing its exploration of identity. One of the central metaphors is the search for one's "song," representing an individual's quest for identity and self-awareness. Bynum, a character in the play, tells Herald, "Now, I can look at you, Mr. Loomis, and see you a man who done forgot his song. Forgot how to sing it. A fellow forget that and he forget who he is." This metaphor extends beyond Herald's personal journey, resonating with the broader African American cultural identity linked to their African heritage where music is integral.
The boardinghouse, more than just a physical structure, symbolizes a space for healing and self-discovery. Tenants like Herald and Mattie seek to mend their disrupted lives, guided by characters such as Bertha and Bynum. Bertha, in particular, offers wisdom to Mattie about love and patience, saying, "Trying to figure it out don’t do nothing but give you a troubled mind. Don’t no man want a woman with a troubled mind." Their interactions underscore the themes of guidance and communal support within the play.
The Shiny Man
Among the intriguing metaphors in the play is the "shiny man," symbolizing African American independence and the realization of one's identity and freedom. Bynum recounts meeting a mysterious man, who, through a symbolic act involving blood, inspires visions of empowerment and clarity. "He has Bynum rub their hands together, and when Bynum looks at their combined hands, he sees that ‘they got blood on them.’ The man tells Bynum to ‘take and rub it all over me...say that was a way of cleaning myself.’" This visionary experience leads Bynum to perceive the man "shining like new money," a metaphor for self-sufficiency and enlightenment.
The climax of the play sees Herald undergo a transformative act, paralleling Bynum's experience. When urged by his wife, Martha, to "be washed with the blood of the lamb," Herald asserts his autonomy, declaring, "I can bleed for myself." His dramatic self-mutilation and subsequent covering of his face with his blood is a ritualistic act of liberation, echoing Bynum's earlier encounter. This self-empowerment, as noted by Bynum, causes Herald to shine "like new money," signifying his newfound independence and reconnection with his identity. This transformation reveals the essence of the shiny man, the embodiment of a liberated black identity, free from historical chains and fully realized in its autonomy.
In "Joe Turner's Come and Gone," August Wilson masterfully uses metaphor and setting to explore deep themes of identity, cultural heritage, and self-discovery. The play invites audiences to reflect on the enduring impact of history and the personal journeys of those seeking to reclaim their "songs" within the ever-changing landscape of American society.
Compare and Contrast
-
Late 1900s/Early 1910s: In 1908, Jack Johnson becomes the
first African American to win the world heavyweight boxing championship. After
he successfully defends his title in 1910, race riots erupt across the United
States.
1980s: In Liberty City, Florida, riots break out following the acquittal of police officers charged with killing an unarmed black man.
Today: New York witnesses its largest protest against police brutality after officers fire forty-one bullets at Amadou Diallo, a black immigrant.
-
Late 1900s/Early 1910s: Many African Americans lose their
freedom when forced into slavery by Tennessee plantation owner Joe Turney,
whose actions are immortalized in the blues song, ‘‘Joe Turner’s Come and
Gone.’’ Others endure severe segregation and discrimination.
1980s: Tensions rise between South Africa’s black majority and the white ruling class due to the apartheid system, which enforces racial segregation and repression. Apartheid laws restrict nonwhite rights, including denying blacks the right to vote. Both the UK and the US impose selective economic sanctions against South Africa in protest.
Today: After the first all-race national elections in 1994, South Africa’s government now has a black majority and a permanent, nonracial constitution.
-
Late 1900s/Early 1910s: W. E. B. Du Bois, along with white
activists Jane Addams and John Dewey, helps establish the National Association
for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Du Bois becomes one of the era's
most influential public figures.
1980s: Reverend Jesse Jackson runs twice for the Democratic presidential nomination, garnering substantial support from both black and white communities.
Today: General Colin Powell serves as the United States Secretary of State under President George W. Bush, becoming the first African American to hold this position.
Bibliography
Sources
Bogumil, Mary L. Understanding August Wilson. University of South
Carolina Press, 1999, p. 65.
Fleche, Anne. "The History Lesson: Authenticity and Anachronism in August Wilson’s Plays," in May All Your Fences Have Gates: Essays on the Drama of August Wilson, edited by Alan Nadel. University of Iowa Press, 1994, p. 14.
Pereira, Kim. August Wilson and the African-American Odyssey. University of Illinois Press, 1995, pp. 70, 81.
Plum, Jay. "Blues, History, and the Dramaturgy of August Wilson," in African American Review, Vol. 27, No. 4, Winter 1993, pp. 561–67.
Shannon, Sandra G. The Dramatic Vision of August Wilson. Howard University Press, 1995, pp. 120–21.
———. "The Ground on Which I Stand: August Wilson’s Perspective on African American Women," in May All Your Fences Have Gates: Essays on the Drama of August Wilson, edited by Alan Nadel. University of Iowa Press, 1994, p. 151.
Wilson, August. Joe Turner’s Come and Gone. Penguin Books, 1988.
———. "The Play," in Joe Turner’s Come and Gone. Penguin Books, 1988.
Wolfe, Peter. August Wilson. Twayne Publishers, 1999, pp. 77, 79–80, 88.
Further Reading
Aptheker, Herbert, ed. A Documentary History of the Negro People in the
United States 1910–1932, 1973; reprint, Carol Publishing Group, 1993.
Aptheker’s well-regarded historical study of African-American history draws on
original documents such as essays, reports, speeches, letters, and news
articles written by individuals from that era. Together, these documents
provide a comprehensive picture of African-American life from 1910 to 1932,
covering various subjects including peonage.
Earle, Jonathan. The Routledge Atlas of African-American History. Routledge, 2000. This atlas chronicles four centuries of African-American history and culture in the United States, from the early 1600s to the present day. It features brief essays on a wide range of topics, from politics to sports, illustrated with photographs, charts, graphs, maps, and other visuals. The book also includes a chronology of African history from 3200 B.C.E. to the late 1990s.
Elkins, Marilyn. August Wilson: A Casebook. Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000. First published in 1994, this revised collection of essays delves into various facets of Wilson’s life and career, including his creative process, notable collaboration with theater director Lloyd Richards, and the contexts of his plays. The book also features a 1993 interview with Wilson.
Handy, W. C. Father of the Blues: An Autobiography. Da Capo Press, 1991. In this autobiography, W. C. Handy reflects on his life and the origins of jazz and blues, discussing the background of some of his most famous songs, including "Joe Turner’s Come and Gone."
Herrington, Joan. I Ain’t Sorry for Nothin’ I Done: August Wilson’s Process of Playwriting. Limelight Editions, 1998. Herrington examines the development of three of Wilson’s plays: Joe Turner’s Come and Gone, Fences, and Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom. Through her analysis, she explores the various life experiences that influenced Wilson’s dramatic works.
Schwartzman, Myron. Romare Bearden: His Life and Art. Harry N. Abrams, 1990. Despite their distinctly different backgrounds, Wilson and Bearden depicted the African-American experience in comparable ways. Bearden conveyed it through his art, while Wilson expressed it through plays, some of which were inspired by Bearden's creations. This book provides an in-depth look into Bearden's life and includes both black-and-white and color reproductions of many of his works. Additionally, it features several interviews with Bearden himself.
