SOURCE: Downey, Charlotte. Introduction to The Elements of Rhetoric, by James De Mille. 1878. Reprint, pp. 9-19. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 2000.

[In the following excerpt from her introduction to a 2000 edition of De Mille's Elements of Rhetoric, Downey presents a broad overview of the text, discussing De Mille's comments on style, organization of subject matter, use of emotionally charged language, and genres in literature.]

The Elements of Rhetoric by James De Mille (1837-1880) was published in New York by Harper & Brothers in 1878. In the preface De Mille informs his readers that “its contents embrace the subjects of style, method, the language of emotions, and the general departments of literature” (vi).

STYLE

In presenting style early in his book, De Mille resembles Bain, Blair, Boyd, Day, Genung, and Kellogg. He begins by stating style “may be defined as the peculiar manner in which thought is expressed in language” (14). Henry Day, whose book was published a decade before De Mille's, gives the similar definition of style as “that part of Rhetoric which treats of the expression of thought in language” (Day, 1868: 208).

When stating his divisions of style, like other rhetoricians, he gives perspicuity first place, saying, “It may be regarded as the first essential of style, without which all other beauties are of no avail” (17). Kellogg expresses the same sentiment with “The first cardinal quality of style is Perspicuity” (Kellogg, 1882: 84). Both De Mille and Kellogg give perspicuity first place in their list as well as first place in importance. This “Perspicuity,” De Mille says, “may be considered, first, with reference to the choice of words; secondly, in their arrangement; and thirdly, in general composition” (18). So, in order to be understood, the writer must choose words which the reader understands, such as English words and present-day words. And De Mille stresses: “Perspicuity depends not only upon the choice of words, but also upon their arrangement” (56). As for the general composition, unity is vital, for, with this as aim,

the precise idea of the writer is presented to the mind as one whole, with all its co-ordinate and subordinate relations arranged so that no misconception can arise.

(64)

Evidently De Mille means his term “division” to be synonymous with the term “quality” used by other rhetoricians. He names as the parts of his division of style: “I. Perspicuity; II. Persuasiveness; III. Harmony” (17), while most other rhetoricians list Perspicuity, energy or vivacity, and elegance.

Persuasiveness, the second category in De Mille's division, he states, “comprehends everything that may conduce to arouse the attention, enforce argument, stimulate imagination, and excite the feelings” (86). Day's definition, unlike De Mille's, makes the moving of the will the main function of persuasion, claiming:

In Persuasion, the object of discourse is to move the will, either by leading to a new act or purpose, or dissuading it from one already adopted.

(Day: 190)

Under persuasiveness, De Mille includes “I. Figures of Speech. II. Energy. III. Vivacity” (86).

When introducing the figures, he divides them into those of grammar, which are “figures of style, which are also called figures of speech” (87). He describes these figures in detail, especially the “antithesis, metaphor, and climax … [which] all tend to promote the ends of rhetoric” (88).

We compare his definition of antithesis with that of Genung. De Mille states:

By antithesis is meant the comparison of different things. This is a figure which possesses great energy and versatility, and owes its power to the effect of contrast.

(93)

And Genung claims:

This figure places opposite ideas in juxtaposition, for the purpose of heightening their effect by contrast.

(Genung, 1887: 102)

Both rhetoricians perceive the same thrust, “the effect of contrast” (De Mille) and “the effect by contrast” (Genung).

Of the Metaphor, De Mille states it “is an implied comparison” (110), and “In metaphor the sign of comparison is dropped, the two are identical, and the one is asserted to be the other, as, He is a lion” (110).

The climax, he describes as “an ascending series of thoughts or statements, which go on increasing in importance until the last” (164), claiming it is “One of the most important of the argumentative figures” (164).

The two remaining terms under Persuasiveness, namely energy and vitality, match the second quality of style given by most other rhetoricians. However, the meaning of these terms may differ. The term energy is used by Bascom, Henry Day, Brainerd Kellogg, and Richard Whately. The term strength is the choice of John Genung and Adams Hill. Vivacity is the name George Campbell uses. Samuel Newman uses both vivacity and force; and James Boyd uses vivacity and strength. Of course, each one has his own reason for his choice. De Mille defends his choice of the term energy:

This word is generally explained by such terms as “force,” “vigor,” or “strength,” and energy in style may, therefore, be defined as strength of expression.

(204)

Vivacity, De Mille's third term in his list of requisites for Persuasiveness, he compares with Campbell's version:

The word vivacity is used by Dr. Campbell in a very extended sense, being selected by him to include all those qualities which are here represented by the general term persuasiveness.

In a more restricted sense it may be defined as the exhibition of life and feeling, of vividness in portrayal, and perpetual variety of expression.

(218)

And he sums up with, “vivacity refers first to the thought, and secondly to the expression” (218, 219).

When introducing harmony, his third item of style, De Mille explains it goes beyond the written word, defining it as

that quality in style which gives pleasure to the ear and to the mind by the use of euphonious words, rhythmical arrangements, and elegant sentiments. It comprises three departments—euphony, rhythm, and elegance.

(239)

Comparing euphony and elegance, he claims: “Euphony … appeals to the ear and elegance to the taste; the one refers to the sound of words, the other to their signification” (239). …

METHOD

After describing the divisions of style, De Mille introduces method, which he defines

As the choice and arrangement of the subject-matter of the composition, as distinguished from style, which is the manner of its expression in words.

(294)

“Subject-matter, when considered with reference to the mode in which it is presented,” he continues,

assumes various forms, which constitute the leading departments of literature … 1. Description. 2. Narration. 3. Exposition. 4. Oratory. 5. Dialogue. 6. Drama. 7. Poetry.

(294, 295)

The rhetorician, Alexander Bain, also lists the departments of literature in his text. But there is not a one-to-one correspondence to De Mille's list. Bain names them as “Description” (1871: 153), “Narrative” (166), “Exposition” (185), “Persuasion” (212), and “Poetry” (257). He omits oratory, dialogue, and drama, but includes persuasion. De Mille omits persuasion here, but he makes persuasiveness his second category in his division of style.

In the composition of each department of literature, invention plays a vital role. De Mille claims that invention “being … the selection and accumulation of subject-matter, is also concerned with the purpose of the writer” (296). And the purpose “may be [first] to instruct; secondly, to convince; thirdly, to persuade; and fourthly, to please” (296). The writer carries on the process of invention, gathering subject-matter for the particular department of literature he is about to compose. And De Mille makes known the sources of the subject-matter.

The first is where the writer gathers the subject-matter from external sources. … The second is where the writer supplies the subject-matter by the creative faculty of his own mind.

(304)

LANGUAGE OF THE EMOTIONS

Although the departments of literature are enriched by good style and organized by method, it is the appeal to the emotions that moves the reader. Literature is enjoyed by man through both the intellect and the emotions. De Mille asserts:

The influence of the emotions is as powerful in literature as in life. Men are guided not so much by reason as by passions, desires, or prejudices, and it is to these that the writer makes his most frequent and effective appeals.

(380)

He continues to stress the power of the emotions, saying, it is by their power “that the imagination is stimulated, and it is enabled to create the brightest forms of the beautiful or the loftiest conceptions of the sublime” (381).

In regard to the “beautiful,” De Mille writes:

Literature has already been shown to be under certain aspects a branch of art, and this conception of it has given rise to the term belles-lettres. … Now the end of all art is the beautiful.

(388)

In regard to the “sublime,” he writes: “The emotion of the sublime is an internal elevation of mind produced by wonder, awe, or terror” (395). The beautiful and the sublime, De Mille claims, “are subordinate to the taste” (381).

Except for De Mille, Blair, and Newman, most rhetoricians give little attention to taste. Blair would agree with De Mille's including taste in his section on emotions, for, he asserts, “a person of delicate taste both feels strongly, and feels accurately” (Blair, 1819: 19).

GENERAL DEPARTMENTS OF LITERATURE

The application of style, method, and emotions contribute to the different departments of literature, known as genres. The nature of the English language offers great potential for including a variety of genres. Way back in 1878, De Mille states:

Of all literatures English is the most fully equipped, since it possesses works of the highest excellence in all its departments, many of which can never be surpassed, and, some of which have never been equalled.

(v)

Today, in the year 2000, English has become the global language, and its rich literature in its various genres, is being read and enjoyed throughout the world.

De Mille describes the scope of literature with:

Literature in its most general signification means all the written productions of a nation; but in its stricter sense it comprehends only those writings which come within the sphere of rhetoric, excluding works devoted to learning and science. It is sometimes specified by the terms “elegant” or “polite” literature or “letters”.

(456)

Before listing the different departments or genres within literature, De Mille explains: “A fully equipped literature has various departments, which … are marked by distinct peculiarities of form and treatment” (456). And he lists the departments as: “1. Description; 2. Narration; 3. Exposition; 4. Oratory; 5. Dialogue; 6. Drama; 7. Poetry” (456). Then he defines each for his readers.

Description refers to the point in time at which the scene is observed.

Narrative refers to succession of events detailed in the order of time (462).

Exposition is that kind of composition which deals with the subject-matter by a process of reasoning, so as to reach a certain conclusion, through the discussion of facts or principles.

(466)

Today, more than a century after De Mille published his Elements of Rhetoric, there is a great emphasis on exposition. Almost every college and university requires that every freshman take a course in Expository Writing. Of course, it is this course that prepares students for writing essays, theses, and dissertations.

De Mille describes the department of Oratory as that type, which

makes use of all the resources of rhetoric. Of all the embellishments of style or the forces of argument, of all the modes of expression that may influence the taste or sway the passions.

(470, 471)

Compared to the debate, it “considers the subject from one point of view” (471); and the “debate considers the subject from two or more opposed points of view” (471). Oratory is spoken language, while description and narration can also be expressed in written language.

Dialogue is different to the other departments. De Mille points out, “It is the consideration of a subject by more than one” (513), adding, it “is an imitation of the conversation of real life, and differs from other kinds of literature as conversation differs from individual discussion, soliloquy, or monologue” (513).

Drama, the department, which is seen and heard rather than read, De Mille describes as one of “1st, narration; 2d, action” (515). The types familiar to most people are the tragedy and the comedy. But there are many types. De Mille treats the genre historically, saying, “It grew up first as a dialogue around choral songs” (516). He continues:

The modern drama, like the ancient had a religious origin. Its first appearance is in the mystery plays, which were represented in connection with a religious service—ministerium—from which word “mystery” is derived.

(516)

There were, also, morality plays. People, who had little education, some of whom could not read, learned the stories of the Bible from these plays. After De Mille completes his coverage of drama, he presents poetry.

He claims that “Poetry affords the best example of the power of thought and the resources of language” (519). T. S. Eliot tells how this thought and language can express the poetry of a people.

The poetry of a people takes its life from the people's speech and in turn gives life to it; and represents its highest point of consciousness, its greatest power and its most delicate sensibility.

(T. S. Eliot, 1955: 15)

De Mille describes the forms and metres, which accompany the thought and language of poetry. While discussing metre, he states: “Versification in English poetry depends upon feet and metres” (523). Since he does not include free verse in his types of verse, he may not be aware that this type depends on neither feet nor metre. Walt Whitman, a master in free verse, makes this evident. His prosody is based on rhythm rather than on metre. It is an undulating rhythm, which resembles the flow of the waves of the ocean. In his “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd,” we observe the long rhythmical movement.

Over the tree-tops I float thee a song,
Over the rising and sinking waves, over the myriad fields and prairies wide
Over the dense-packed cities all and the teeming wharves and ways,
I float this carol with joy, with joy to thee O death.

(stanza 14, 11. 52-55)

Fred Newton Scott describes Whitman's verse, saying:

He wished to embody in his verse the largo of nature, especially the flux and reflux of the waves, the rise and fall of the murmur of the pines, …

(Scott, 1908: 149)

Whitman's Leaves of Grass was published in 1855, and perhaps, De Mille had not yet become familiar with it, or with free verse itself.

However, De Mille has a very comprehensive knowledge of the poetry of his time. He comments on what he sees as the “present age of English poetry,” and prophesies that it

has been distinguished for the development of its versification. Several metres, formerly used for lyrical purposes only, have been successfully applied to long narrative themes, such as the dactylic and trochaic by Longfellow in his Evangeline and Hiawatha, and the anapaestic by Tennyson in his Maud. In addition to this, new rhythmical effects have been introduced into lyrical poetry, with greater freedom and flexibility in the manipulation of syllables. In this pursuit Tennyson has led the way, and Swinburne has carried it farther than any other. These and others have disclosed fresh resources in our language, and their works indicate an advance into new departments of metrical harmony by which the poetry of the future will be enriched.

(543)

Although James De Mille in his Elements of Rhetoric follows a different order and plan than other rhetoricians, he produces a well organized description of the field of rhetoric. His main divisions of style differ from the divisions perceived by others, but he covers the same essential qualities of style as other rhetoricians.

James De Mille received his Master of Arts from Brown University in 1854. Under his name in the Brown Alumni Directory, we see these accomplishments:

Bookseller, St. John, N.B.; professor Classics, Acadia college 1860-65; History and rhetoric, Dalhousie college, Halifax, N.S. 1865-80.

It then lists twenty-six of his publications. Among them is The Elements of Rhetoric, “on which,” Archibald Macmechan claims, “he worked for seven years … [and] As an analytical treatise on style, it is one of the clearest and most complete ever written” (Macmechan, 1906: 415).

Works Cited

Bain, Alexander. English Composition and Rhetoric. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1871; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1996.

Blair, Hugh. Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. New York: Collins and Harper, 1819; rpt. Delmar, N.Y.: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1993.

Day, Henry N. The Art of Discourse: A System of Rhetoric. New York: Charles Scribner & Co., 1868; rpt. Delmar, N.Y.: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1998.

De Mille, James. The Elements of Rhetoric. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1878.

Eliot, T[homas] S[tearns]. The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism: Studies in the Relation of Criticism to Poetry. London: Faber & Faber, 1955.

Genung, John F. The Practical Elements of Rhetoric. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1887; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1995.

Kellogg, Brainerd. A Text-Book on Rhetoric. New York: Clark & Maynard, 1882; rpt. Delmar, N.Y.: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1990.

Macmechan, Archibald. “De Mille: The Man and the Writer,” The Canadian Magazine 27, no. 5 (September 1906).

Scott, Fred Newton. “A Note on Walt Whitman's Prosody,” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology 7, no. 2 (1908).

Whitman, Walt. Leaves of Grass. Edited by Harold W. Blodgett and Sculley Bradley. Preface, 1855. New York: Norton, 1965; rpt. 1968.