SOURCE: Gholam Hosein Yousofi, "Mawlavi as a Storyteller," in The Scholar and the Saint: Studies in Commemoration of Abu'l-Rayhan al-Biruni and Jalal al-Din al-Rumi, edited by Peter J. Chelkowski, New York University Press, 1975, pp. 287-306.

[In the following essay, Yousofi describes Rumi's storytelling—with its use of dialogue, anecdotes, short and expressive descriptions, creation of characters, and humor—as an art, asserting that he presents "a true picture of human beings and their different characteristics in various instances."]

Stories have always been attractive to all of mankind. Most people enjoy novels, short stories, plays, scenarios, biographies, etc., in prose as well as in poetry. The authors of stories are, in fact, great discoverers of human character and everybody, particularly the common people, are so impressed by their work. Besides, any idea, including its most subtle points, can be understood better through stories, which make it possible for the readers to comprehend and to conclude the facts easily by themselves. We find many interesting stories particularly in the Old Testament, the Gospels, and the Qur'an. In Islamic studies there are two important branches, both of them based upon religious stories: these are … Qur'anic tales and … prophets' biographies.

It is not surprising that the Sufis have paid so much attention to stories and have used them to express their ideas in their books. For instance, we find 1885 tales in 'Attar's works.¹ The characters of his stories are mostly typical common people; among them we notice even distraught people whose words contain truth.² The Sufis found stories to be the most effective means to impress various groups: the learned, as well as ignorant people; the old as well as the young; men as well as women; Muslims as well as followers of other religions, etc. Besides, important points and social criticism, which they would not have dared to discuss openly in their prejudiced times, could be expressed easily in stories. On this matter Mawlavi writes: …

I said to him, "It is better that the secret of
  the Friend should be disguised: do thou
  hearken (to it as implied) in the contents
  of the tale.…"
It is better that the lovers' secret should be
  told in the talk of others. (II, 11).³

In the Mathnawi we notice not only the vast domain of Mawlavi's knowledge but also his rich information concerning Islamic narratives, Persian literary and popular tales, folklore, parables, etc. The Mathnawi is an interesting collection of fascinating stories among which there are a rather large number of Islamic tales. One aspect of Rumi's talent is the interpretation of Qur'anic verses as well as Muhammad's sayings … through stories. For example, in the story of "The two snake-catchers" we read as a conclusion:

Many are the prayers which are loss and
 estruction, and from kindness
the Holy God is not hearing them (II, 229).

The idea behind the verse of the story is the same as in the Qur'an: … Yet peradventure that ye hate a thing while it is good for you, and peradventure that ye love a thing while it is bad for you; God knows, and ye,—ye do not know!⁴

We may have the same impression when we read the story entitled, "How a lover found his beloved unexpectedly": … Unbeknown (to me), Thou hast created the means: from the gate of Hell Thou hast brought me to Paradise (IV, 268).

The story of Pharaoh and Moses (IV, 49 ff.) as well as Noah's building of the Ark (IV, 157), and Bilqis's gift from the city of Saba to Solomon (IV, 303 ff.) are all based upon Qur'anic verses.⁵ The visit of Muhammad to the sick Companion (II, 332 ff.) is also taken from one of the prophetic narratives.⁶

There are several stories related to the miracles performed by the prophets and the intuitive insight of holy men. But witchcraft, enchantment, or unreasonable fictitious events are rare in the stories of the Mathnawi.

Mawlavi does not write stories for the amusement of his readers; rather, his tales are elements by means of which he expresses his mystical ideas. They enable him to simplify and to make comprehensible the most delicate and complicated subjects, such as, for example, determinism and free will.…

Many of the stories of the Mathnawi were already known and popular among the people or had been written in previous books. But Mawlavi, with his graceful talent, has recreated many of them. A very short tale or a simple ordinary event is a sufficient basis upon which he builds a beautiful story composed of several attractive scenes. Besides, he adapts the stories to his own thoughts and through them makes us aware of his wisdom. Therefore, his adoption and adaption of older stories leads to a literary creations.⁷ When we compare some of the stories with their sources, we recognize how skilfully he has developed or changed them. I can mention, for example, "The story of Joseph's guest who brought him the gift of a mirror" (II, 172-174); "The story of an enemy who spat in the face of 'Ali b. Abi-Talib and how 'Ali dropped the sword from his hand" (II, 202 ff.); "How a peasant stroked a lion in the dark, because he thought it was his ox" (II, 247-248); "How the Sufis sold the traveler's ass to pay for the expenses of the mystic dance" (II, 248-252); "The teacher who fancied he was ill" (IV, 85-90), and "The story of the king's falling in love with a handmaiden." (II, 6-17).⁸

The stories of the Mathnawi reveal Mawlavi's deep knowledge of human nature and his psychological understanding. In his tales, he skilfully illuminates the virtues as well as the weak points of human beings in various ways. For example, in one story a grammarian is so proud of his qualifications that he says to a boatman who has not studied grammar, "Half your life is gone to naught," (II, 155); another story shows "How a braggart greased his lips and moustache every morning with the skin of a fat sheep's tail and came amongst his companions, saying, 'I have eaten such and such viands'" (IV, 43-44). There is also an interesting example to show the effect of inculation in people and "How the boys made the teacher imagine that he was ill" (IV, 87). We see elsewhere an avaricious man "whose dog is dying of hunger, while his wallet is full of bread; he is lamenting over the dog and reciting poetry and sobbing and beating his head and face; and yet he grudges the dog a morsel from his wallet" and says: "Bread cannot be obtained (from a traveler) on the road without money, but water from the eyes costs nothing" (VI, 31).

An ascetic "goes about with a lamp in the daytime in the midst of the bazaar" and is searching everywhere for a man and saying: "Where is one who is a man at the moment of anger and at the moment of lust? In search of such a man I am running from street to street" (VI, 174). There is also the "Story of an old woman who depilates and rouges her ugly face" and this is her description: …

Her face was in folds like the surface of a
 traveler's food-wallet, but there remained in
 her the passionate desire for a husband.
She was like a cock that crows at the wrong
 time, a road that leads nowhere, a big fire
 beneath an empty kettle (VI, 326).

Some stories present the admirable virtues of people, such as: the sincere love of Majnum for Layla (IV, 34); the sacrifice of a mother who abandons her faith to rescue her child from the fire (II, 44); the generosity of 'Ali for an enemy (II, 202 ff.); the benevolence of some people towards others (II, 266-267); and, the deep faith of Bilal whose "master was flogging him by way of correction, with a thorny branch under the blazing sun of the Hijaz," and he remained loyal to Muhammad "because he was so full of the passion of love that there was no room for any care about relieving the pain of the thorns" (VI, 307 ff.).

In many other cases Mawlavi depicts a true picture of human beings and their different characteristics in various instances. While we are enjoying his stories, we gradually become aware of certain subtle points.

Mawlavi's knowledge of mankind is not limited to individuals only; he also depicts the social behavior of people and their relations to one another.

In some stories the importance of compatibility has been described in various aspects. For example, a certain sage sees a crow running about with a stork and he says:

I marvelled long, and I investigated their
  cause, in order that I might find the clue
  as to what it was that they had in
  common.
When, amazed and bewildered, I approached
 them, then indeed I saw that both of them
 were lame (II, 330).

Birds can symbolize human beings and their relationship with each other.

In another story a "woman whose child crawls to the top of the water-spout and is in danger of falling, beseeches the help of 'Ali Murtaza" and here is 'Ali's response:

He said, "Take another child up to the roof,
 in order that the boy may see his
 congener,
And come nimbly from the water-spout to
 his congener: congener is ever in love
 with congener."
The woman did so, and when her child saw
 its congener, it turned its face towards it
 with delight
And came from the ridge of the water-spout
 to the roof:
    Know that a congener attracts every
     congener (IV, 419).

On the contrary, in the "Story of a young gazelle being confined in the donkey stable where the donkey assails the stranger with hostility and mockery," Mawlavi says: "This is a description of the chosen servant of God amongst worldlings and those addicted to passion and sensuality." Then he writes: … Whosoever is left (in company with his opposite, they (who are wise) have deemed that punishment (terrible) as death (VI, 52).

In another tale a gardener can profit from the weak points of a Sufi, a jurist, and a descendant of 'Ali to isolate them from one another and to drive them out of the garden.

He said, "I have a hundred arguments
 against these fellows, but they are united,
 and a united party is a source of strength.
I cannot cope singly with three persons,
  so first I will sunder them from one
  another.
I will isolate each one from the others, and
  when each is alone, I will tear out his
  moustache" (II, 333).

There is also a story in which we see two different types of people: a simple-minded peasant whose ram is stolen by cunning thieves. "Not only content with that, they steal his clothes too by means of a trick" (VI, 283-284).

There are other stories about the behavior and reaction of different groups towards one another, such as the complaint of an objector to the Prophet who has appointed "a youth of Hudhayl to be commander of an expeditionary force in which there were elders and veteran warriors" and Muhammad's answer:

Often have I tested his understanding: that
  youth has shown the ripe experience of
  age in handling affairs.
O son, the really old is the old in
  understanding: 'tis not whiteness of the
  hair in the beard and on the head (IV,
  382-391).

There is the "Story of the tanner who fainted and sickened on smelling otto and musk in the bazaar of the perfumers and how his brother sought to cure him secretly with the smell of dung" (IV, 286, 288). This story shows the effect of accustomed environment. Another story depicts the impression of two children of their own living conditions. The first boy whose father has died comes from a well-to-do family and the second whose name is Juh is a pauper. This is the story:

A child was crying bitterly and beating his
  head beside his father's coffin,
Saying, "Why, father, where are they taking
  you to press you tight under some earth?
They are taking you to a narrow and
  noisome house: there is no carpet in it,
  nor any mat;
No lamp at night and no bread by day;
 neither smell nor sign of food is there.
No door in good repair, no way to the roof;
 not one neighbor to be your refuge.
Your body, which was kissed by people—
 how should it go into a blind and murky
 house?—
A pitiless house and narrow room, where
  neither your face will be lasting nor your
  color."

In this manner was he enumerating the
  qualities of the house, whilst he wrung
  tears of blood from his two eyes.
Juhi said to his father, "O worthy sir, by
  God they are taking this corpse to our
  house."
The father said to Juhi, "Don't be a fool!"
 "O papa," said he, "hear the marks of
 identity.
These marks which he mentioned one by
  one—our house has them all, without
  uncertainty or doubt" (II, 383).

Mawlavi describes elsewhere different types of people: a lover who sacrifices his life for the beloved with ease and rejoicing (VI, 76); another lover who falls asleep at the rendezvous with his sweetheart (VI, 290). We see a Sufi "who has been brought up in ease" and is not able to participate in the war so the soldiers say to him: "Fighting is not the business of any faint-heart who runs away from a specter [hallucination], like a [flitting] specter" (VI, 224-226). There is "another sufi who enters the battle-line twenty times for the purpose of fighting,": "He was wounded, but he bandaged the wound which he had received, and once more advanced to the charge and combat" (VI, 228).

There are also two viziers with the same name, Hasan, at the same court: the first one is generous and the second very mean (IV, 336-340).

Some stories present the internal problems of the … monastery among the sufis (II, 403 ff.), and the dispute between wives and husbands concerning family matters (VI, 356-357, 204 ff.).

The number and the variety of types of people, their temperaments and their behavior, in Rumi's stories, show this author's intelligence and awareness concerning the nature and mentality of mankind.

Another important aspect of the Mathnawi is its social criticism. Mawlavi criticizes society and the corruption of different people, such as prejudiced and narrow-minded persons, hypocrites, officials, and others. For example, in one story an eminent man has feigned to be mad to avoid being appointed qazi of the city (II, 342 ff.). His behavior is an objection to the judicial system. Mawlavi describes elsewhere a "qazi who falls a prey to the pleading words and beauty of a fair woman"; to enjoy her love he forgets his own duty (VI, 504). There is also "a certain divine who has collected some old rags and wound them in his turban, in order that it might become big and look grand when he comes into the assembly." His deceitfulness is described in the Mathnawi with these words: "The exterior of the turban was like a robe of paradise, but it was shameful and ugly within, like the hypocrite" (IV, 360; see also II, 345).

The following tale depicts the lack of social security in the community:

   A certain man took refuge in a house:
his face was yellow, his lips blue, and his
color had ebbed away.
   The master of the house said to him, "Is
it will with you? for your hand is
trembling like that of an old man.
   What has happened? Why have you
taken refuge here? How have you lost the
color of your face so entirely?"

The man replied: "Today, they are seizing
 asses in the streets." The householder
 said: "Since you are not an ass, why are
 you troubled at this?"

He answered, "They are very urgent and
 furious in taking them; 'twill be no
 wonder if they take me too for an ass.
They have put their hands with all their
 might to the job of taking asses:
 accordingly discrimination has ceased."
Since undiscriminating persons are our
  rulers, they carry off the owner of the ass
  instead of the ass (VI, 153).

The confrontation of Moses and Pharaoh (IV, 61 ff), in several stories, is the war between faith and power. The poverty of a philosopher is another tale which shows critically the situation of learned men in the society. This is the description of the sage:

I run about with bare feet and naked body.
  If any one will give me a loaf of bread—
  thither I go.
From this wisdom and learning and
  excellence of mind I have got nothing but
  phantasy and headache (II, 387).

Mawlavi depicts a sponger Sufi (II, 248 ff.). He also criticizes "the beguiling talk of ascetics" and those "who incontinently devour the property of orphans" through the "Story of the fowler and the clever bird" (VI, 282-290).

Mawlana also disapproves of the wrong thinking of the people who believe in dreams (VI, 490 ff.). He also describes Sabzavar where no one was named Abu Bakr because all the inhabitants were Shi'ites, and Muhammad Khwarazmshah, who took the city by war said to them: "I will grant you security as soon as ye produce from this city a man named Abu Bakr and present him to me" (VI, 53 ff.). Also, in the town of Kashan "if your name were 'Umar, nobody would sell you a roll of bread even for a hundred dangs" (VI, 436).

The social corruption can be noticed in other cases too, such as the "Story of a Sufi who caught his wife with a strange man" (VI, 281-283), and "How Dalqak (the jester) excused himself when he was asked why he had married a harlot."

Dalqak replied, "I have already married nine
  chaste and virtuous women: they became
  harlots, and I wasted away with grief."

"I married this harlot without previous
  acquaintance with her, in order to see
  how this one also would turn out in the
  end" (II, 342).

Social criticism is, as I have pointed out, an important part of the stories of the Mathnawi.

These tales, as a mirror of society, present a rather good picture of it. They relate, for example, some of the customs, mores, and folklore of the times. Some of these are the tattooing of the figure of animals in blue on people's bodies in Qazvin (II, 163); snake-catching as a job (II, 229; IV, 56); "How the criers of the q advertised an insolvent round the town" (II, 252); some parts of popular medicine (IV, 286 ff.); tricky watchmen of caravans (VI, 287-288), and how "those who commit the Qur' n to memory placed the peacock feathers, on account of its being prized and acceptable, within the folding of the Holy Book" or "for the sake of stirring the healthful air its feathers were used as fans" (VI, 35).

Several folk tales are also to be found in the Mathnawi, such as: "Putting trust in the fawningness and good faith of the bear" … (II, 320 ff.) and "The sea-cow that fetches a fabulous pearl … (the gem radiating by night as a lamp)—out of the sea, lays it on the meadow, and grazes around it" (VI, 419).

All these folk traits make Mawlavi's stories more natural and vivid.

Mawlavi is an intelligent and gifted poet who can draw an unexpected and delicate conclusion from any simple tale or event. His imagination helps him to make subtle points. For example, in "The story of the greengrocer and the parrot," the parrot's wrong inference leads him to this conclusion concerning the error of those who advocate argument by analogy … Do not measure the actions of holy men by (the analogy of) yourself though shir (lion) and shir (milk) are similar in writing (II, 17-18).

The story of the deaf man who went to visit his sick neighbor leads to a similar conclusion (II, 183-184). Let me give you an example of an ordinary conversation ending in a philosophical and revolutionary idea:

A certain man came and was cleaving the
 soil: a fool cried out and could not
 control himself,
Saying, "wherefore are you ruining this soil
 and cleaving and scattering it?"
"O fool," said he, "begone, do not interfere
  with me: recognise the difference of
  cultivation from devastation.
How should this soil became a rose-garden
 or cornfield till this soil becomes ugly and
 ruined?
How should it become orchards and crops
 and leaves and fruit till its arrangement is
 turned upside down?"
Whenever they [the builders] put an old
 building in good repair, do not they first
 ruin the old one? (IV, 401-402).…

Mawlavi's wisdom, sensitivity, and his creative mind enable him to observe important points everywhere. He employs stories beautifully to illustrate his mystical ideas. For instance, here is one interesting story showing the reason for people's diversity of opinions on any matter.

The elephant was in a dark house: some
  Hindus had brought it for exhibition.
In order to see it, many people were going,
  every one, into that darkness.
As seeing it with the eye was impossible,
  each one was feeling it in the dark with
  the palm of his hand.
The hand of one fell on its trunk: he said,
  "This creature is like a water-pipe."
The hand of another touched its ear: to him
 it appeared to be like a fan.
Since another handled its leg, he said, "I found
  the elephant's shape to be like a pillar."
Similarly, whenever anyone heard a
  description of the elephant, he understood
  it only in respect of the part that he had
  touched.
On account of the diverse points of view,
 their statements differed: one man entitled
 it "dal," another "alif."
If there had been a candle in each one's
  hand, the difference would have gone out
  of their words (IV, 71-72).

We find the same idea, i.e., the unity of truth, in the story entitled "Four persons who quarrelled about grapes, which were known to each of them by a different name" in four languages (II, 413) or "How dissension and enmity amongst the Ansar were removed by the blessings of the Prophet" (II, 414). These anecdotes remind us of Hafiz's famous verse: …

The wrangle of seventy-two sects,—
 establish excuse for all—
When truth, they saw not, the door of fable
 they beat.⁹

In another story, "Moses takes offence at the ignorant prayer of the shepherd," who says: "Where are Thou, that I may become Thy servant and sew They shoes and comb Thy head?" But a revelation comes to Moses from God: "Thou hast parted My servant from Me. Didst thou come [as a prophet] to unite, or didst thou come to sever?, / I look not at the tongue and the speech; I look at the inward [spirit] and the state [of feeling]" (II, 310-312).

The philosophy that everybody has the right to worship God anywhere in any way or in any language that he knows, represents one of the humanistic aspects of sufism. The Sufis say: … the ways to God are an many as human souls (individuals). This freedom of religion should be appreciated particularly when one considers that those were the days when religious prejudice was the main factor in many social problems. It is based upon the same kind of thinking expressed in another of Mawlavi's stories, where the author writes:

The veracious Bilal in [uttering] the call to
 prayer used, from ardent feeling, to
 pronounce hayya as hayya,
So that they [some people] said, "O
  Messenger [of God], this fault is not right
  [permissible] now when 'tis the beginning
  of the edifice (of Islam)."
The Prophet's wrath boiled up, and he gave
 one or two indications of the hidden
 favors [which God had bestowed upon
 Bilal],
Saying, "O base men, in God's sight the
  [mispronounced] hayy of Bilal is better
  than a hundred hays and khays and
  words and phrases" (IV, 13-14).

These stories present their author as an open-minded man; his thinking places him above all organized religions and creeds.

Besides sufism, there are many philosophical thoughts illuminated in the form of simple tales in the Mathnawi such as this pleasant "Story in answer to the Necessitarian" … confirming Man's free will …:

A certain man was climbing up a tree and
 vigorously scattering the fruit in the
 manner of thieves.
The owner of the orchard came along and
 said to him, "O, rascal, where is your
 reverence for God? What are you doing?"
He replied, "If a servant of God eat from
 God's orchard the dates which God has
 bestowed upon him as a gift,
Why do you vulgarly blame him? Stinginess
 at the table of the all-Rich Lord!"
"O Aybak," said he, "fetch that rope, that I
  may give my answer to Bu'1-Hasan (to
  this fine fellow)."
Then at once he bound him tightly to the
 tree and thrashed him hard on the back
 and legs with a cudgel.
He [the thief] cried, "Pray, have some
 reverence for God! Thou art killing me
 miserably who am innocent."
He answered, "With God's cudgel this
 servant of His is soundly beating the
 back of another servant.
'Tis God's cudgel, and the back and sides
  belong to Him: I am only the slave and
  instrument of His command."
He [the thief] said, "O cunning knave, I
  make a recantation of Necessitarianism:
  there is free will, there is free will, there is
  free will!" (VI, 185-186).

Many of the most popular and famous of Mawlavi's proverbially renowned verses belong to some parts of his stories, such as the few following lines: …

Oh, many are the Indians and Turks that
 speak the same tongue; oh, many the pair
 of Turks that are as strangers [to each
 other].
Therefore the tongue of mutual
  understanding is different indeed: to be
  one in heart is better than to be one in
  tongue (II, 67) …

The religion of Love is apart from all
  religions: for lovers, the only religion and
  creed is—God (II, 312).…

I am exceedingly enamoured of His violence
  and His gentleness: 'tis marvellous that I
  am in love with both these contraries (II,
  86).

Now it is time for me to call your attention to Mawlavi's storytelling as an art. Some of his stories also appear in the famous Persian translation of the Kalilah-u Dimnah. If we compare, for example, the story of "The three fishes" (IV, 394-398) and the story of "The fox and the ass' (VI, 140 ff.) with the same tales in the Kalilah-u Dimnah, we will notice how beautifully Mawlavi's are written; indeed, they are better than their original version.

This is the story of "The three fishes" symbolizing intelligent, half-intelligent, and foolish men:

This, O obstinate man, is the story of the
  lake in which there were three great
  fishes.
Some fishermen passed beside the lake and
  saw that concealed prey.
Then they hastened to bring the net: the
  fishes noticed and became aware of their
  intention.
The intelligent one resolved to journey,
  resolved to make the difficult unwelcome
  journey.
That wary fish made its breast a foot [swam
  away] and was going from its perilous
  abode to the sea of light.
That fish departed and took the way to the
  sea: it took the far way and the vast
  expanse.
It suffered many afflictions, and in the end
  it went after all towards safety and
  welfare.
So when the fishermen brought their net [to
  the lake], the half-intelligent fish was
  bitterly grieved thereat,
And said, "Alas, I have lost the
  opportunity: how did not I accompany
  that guide?
He hath gone towards the sea and is freed
 from sorrow: such a good comrade hath
 been lost to me!
But I will not think of that and will attend
 to myself: at this present time I will feign
 to be dead."
He [the fish] died in that manner and threw
 his belly upwards: the water was carrying
 him, now alow, now aloft.
Every one of those pursuers [the fishermen]
  bore great vexation [in his heart], saying,
  "Alas, the best fish is dead."
Then a worthy fisherman seized him and
  spat on him and flung him on the ground.
He [the half-intelligent fish], rolling over and
 over, went secretly into the water; the
 [entirely] foolish one remained where he
 was, moving to and fro in agitation.

They cast the net, and he at last remained
  in the net: foolishness ensconced him in
  that fire of perdition.
On the top of the fire, on the surface of a
  frying-pan, he became the bedfellow of
  Folloy (IV, 394-398).

Though Mawlavi is not basically a story writer but merely uses anecdotes to illustrate and confirm his ideas, his technique is remarkable. His stories, short or long, are for the most part fascinating, and the reader cannot take his eyes off them before reaching the end.

Some of these stories are very short and illustrate Rumi's skill in making his points in a few verses.¹⁰ Let me give you some examples: …

The Caliph said to Layl : "Art thou she by
  whom Majin n was distracted and led
  astray?
Thou art not superior to other fair ones."
  "Be silent," she replied, "since thou art
  not Majn n" (II, 25): …

A certain stranger was hastily seeking a
 house: a friend took him to a house in
 ruins.
He said [to the stranger], "If this house had
 a roof, it would be a home for you beside
 me.
Your family too would be comfortable, if it
 had another room in it."
"Yes," said he, "it is nice to be beside
  friends, but my dear soul, one cannot
  lodge in 'if" (II, 259-260).

One of the most significant points in a story is the creation of characters. The great number of characters in Mawlavi's stories reminds us of Balzac's works. In the Mathnawi we find the prophets, Muhammad's companions, caliphs, kings, viziers, Sufis, tradesmen, middle-and lower-class people historical personages, teachers, students, honest or wicked people, various officials, men, women, boys, and girls. In the Mathnawi as in some other mystical works, we find some characters, who were not frequently mentioned previously in Persian literary works, such as minstrels (II, 104; VI, 293), prisoners (II, 252), jesters and harlots (II, 342).

Most of the characters typically act like the shepherd in his prayers and Moses (II, 310-317); the grammarian and the boatman (II, 155); the deaf man and his sick neighbor (II, 183-184); and, the woman whose children never lived long (IV, 191), and others.

Some characters seem very likeable when we read the stories. These are: Muhammad (VI, 323), 'Ali (II, 202 ff.) Luqman (II, 296-301), Hamza, who came to battle without a coat of mail (IV, 192 ff.), the honest man who said to another man: "Consult someone else, for I am your enemy" (IV, 381-382), Bilal (VI, 307 ff.), Ayaz (VI, 111 ff.), and the old harpist (II, 104 ff.).

There are also many fables in the Mathnawi, in which the characters are animals or inanimate objects. Some of these are very interesting fables, such as: the story of "The merchant and the parrot which gave him a message for the parrots of India" (II, 85-101); "The wolf and the fox who went to hunt with the lion" (II, 164-170); "The falcon amongst the owls" (II, 279-282); the conversation of the cock and the dog (IV, 186); "The fox and the ass" (vi, 140 ff.): "The jackal that fell into the dyeing-vat and pretended to be a peacock" (IV, 42 ff.); and "The attachment between the mouse and the frog" (VI, 403 ff.).

In some stories, the characters are: a gnat and the wind (IV, 258-260); or even in some parables: peas and the pot (IV, 232-235) or a reed (II, 5). These are personified to symbolize ideas.

Another interesting aspect in Mawlavi's stories is the confrontation of the characters and their dialogues. We notice some beautiful scenes in which the characters stand face to face, such as: 'Umar and the old harpist (II, 104 ff.); Moses and the shepherd (II, 310-317); the caliph 'Umar and the ambassador of Rumi (II, 77 ff.); the teacher, his students, and his wife (IV, 85-90); the harsh-voiced muezzin in the land of infidels (VI, 202 ff.); Dhu'l-Nun and his friends in the madhouse (II, 292-296); the Turk and the tailor (VI, 351-354); and, the king playing chess with Dalqak (VI, 210).

I would like to quote, as an example, one of the shortest scenes: the meeting of an old man with a physician.

An old man said to a doctor, "I am in torment
 because of my brain."
The doctor replied, "That weakness of brain is
 from age." Said the old man, "There are
 spots of darkness on my eyes."
"It is from age, O ancient Shaykh," said the
   doctor. "Awful pain comes in my back," said
   he.
"It is from age, O emaciated Shaykh," said the
   doctor. "Whatever I eat," said he, "is not
   digested."
The doctor replied, "Weakness of stomach also
  is the result of age." Said he, "When I
  breathe, respiration is hard for me."
"Yes," he said, "it is asthma; when old age
  arrives, two hundred diseases come on."
"O fool," he exclaimed, "You have stuck at
  this: this is all that you have learned of
  medicine."
Then the doctor said to him, "O
 sexagenarian, this anger and this choler
 are also from old age" (II, 382).

There are also many examples of beautifully written dialogues in these stories. I can mention some examples such as: the conversation between the Sufi and the servant of the monastery (II, 230, 250); the countryman and the townsman (IV, 17 ff.); the Arab of the desert and the philosopher (II, 386 ff.); and the deaf man and his neighbor (II, 183-184), etc.

Short and expressive description is another interesting feature in Mawlavi's storytelling. He depicts everything so vividly that the atmosphere of the stories becomes real. In the Mathnawi, not only the appearance of the characters, but also their emotional states are beautifully described. That is why we find them to be sensitive and the stories seem full of life. Some examples are: the description of the thirsy man's feeling (II, 282-283); the captives' thoughts (IV, 250); Nasuh's anxiety to be searched (VI, 136-137); the lover's sentiments during the separation (IV, 265); the amativeness (IV, 51); the old harpist's repentance (II, 113); the anger of the lion with the hare (II, 64); the vow made by the dogs every winter (IV, 162); and, the sorrow of the merchant whose parrot died in the cage. This is part of his lament:

He said, "O beautiful parrot with thy
 sweet cry, what is this that has
 happened to thee? Why hast thou
 become like this?
Oh, alas for my sweet-voiced bird! Oh, alas
 for my bosom-friend and confidant!
Oh, alas for my melodious bird, the wine of
 my spirit and my garden and my sweet
 basil!" (II, 93)

Besides, the description of the scenes and the atmosphere in the stories is attractive. For instance, I can mention Jesus' flight to the top of a mountain to escape from the fools (IV, 144); the mad behavior of Dhu'l-Nun with his friends in the madhouse (II, 296); the fish that feigned to be dead (IV, 397-398); the women's bath (VI, 134-136); and the precipitation of the wife to hide her lover (IV, 282). Mawlavi does not forget any detail to give a complete picture of a scene. The enjoinment of the Sufi to the famulus of the monastery concerning his ass and the situation of the poor ass without fodder all the night (II, 232, 234) are good examples.

Let me give you an example in which Mawlavi describes drunkenness:

He replied, "Nay, nay, I am the fellow for
 that wine: I am not content with testing
 this delight (of which ye speak).
I desire such wine, that, like the jasmine, I
  may ever be reeling crookedly now that
  way, now this,
And, having been delivered from all fear and
 hope, I may be swaying to every side, like
 the willow,
Swaying to left and right like the willow-bough,
  which is made to dance all sorts
  of dances by the wind" (VI, 214-215).

All these factors add fascination to Rumi's stories, and we read them with enthusiasm. The long story of "The countryman and the townsman" (IV, 17-40) is an excellent example; it has several characters, varied scenes, exciting events, and amusing dialogues. We have the same feeling in reading the story of "The teacher and the tricky students" (IV, 85-90) and the story of "The three fishes" (IV, 394-398). In short tales we find more continuity and unity such as the story of "The four Indians who lost their prayers" (II, 378).

Another interesting aspect of the Mathnawi is in its humorous stories. Although the Mathnawi is, in general, a didactic work, it also contains some humor through which the poet calls our attention to serious points. Some of the above mentioned tales are humorous ones, but let me mention the "Story of the minstrel who began to sing this ode at the banquet of the Turkish Amir:

'Art Thou a rose or a lily or a cypress or a moon? I know not. What dost Thou desire from this bewildered one who has lost his heart? I know not'—and how the Turk shouted at him, 'Tell of that which you know?'" (VI, 297).

Other humorous tales are: the "Story of a lover's being engrossed in reading and perusing a love letter in the presence of his beloved, and how the beloved was displeased thereat" (IV, 79); the "Story of the lover who, in hope of the tryst promised to him by his beloved, came at night to the house that she had indicated. He waited there part of the night; then he was overcome by sleep. When his beloved came to fulfill her promise and found him asleep, she filled his lap with walnuts and left him sleeping, saying, 'Thou art a child: take these and play a game of dice'" (VI, 290-291). Also, "How the traveler lost his ass because of the blind imitation of the Sufis" (II, 248-251); "The police inspector and the drunken man" (II, 345); "The cadi and the wife of Juhi" (VI, 504-510); and, several other tales. To bring a light note to this article I quote one of the short humoristic stories of the Mathnawi:

A certain man killed his mother in wrath,
  with blows of a dagger and also with
  blows of his fist.
Some one said to him, "From evil nature
  you have not borne in mind what is due
  to motherhood.
Hey, tell me why you killed your mother.
  What did she do? Pray, tell me, O foul
  villain!"
He said, "She did a deed that is a disgrace
 to her; I killed her because that earth [her
 grave] is her coverer [hides her shame]."
The other said, "O honored sir, kill that one
  who was her partner in guilt." "Then," he
  replied, "I should kill a man every day."
That mother of bad character, whose
  wickedness is in every quarter, is your
  fleshly soul (II, 261-262).

There are other points concerning Mawlavi's storytelling that I will mention briefly. In the Mathnawi we notice several episodes in the course of a story which break up the continuity of the narrative. One such story is "Moses and Pharaoh" in Books III and IV. Mawlavi's imagination is so sensitive that anything can move it to new horizons. This is an important trait of his style which causes the prolixity of his stories. For instance, several similes may describe a single object, or numerous examples may be given to make a single idea comprehensible, or else rather lengthy dialogues appear in some stories.¹¹

Some tales are only a conversation or a debate between two or more people through which Mawlavi makes his points. These anecdotes do not have the essential elements of a story. A few other stories have been written twice, such as "The complaint of the mule to the camel" (IV, 98, 458) and "The thirsty man who threw bricks (or walnuts) into the water" (II, 282; IV, 313). Two stories seem incomplete: "The three princes who fell in love with the portrait of the princess of China" (VI, 455 ff.) and "The man who left his property to the laziest of his three sons" (VI, 527 ff.).¹²

Concerning Rumi's stories, I would like also to mention a few critical points which we do not expect to find in the Mathnawi. In the story of "The King and the handmaiden," the poisoning of the goldsmith by the physician does not seem convincing though Mawlavi writes: "The slaying of this man was not done on account of hope or fear, cease from thinking evil and disputing" (II, 14-16). In another story the philosopher who says: "With strokes of the spade and with the sharpness of the axe we bring the water up from below," does not deserve to lose his sight even though if he should doubt the practical validity of a Qur'anic verse (II, 305). The cause of earth-quakes explained by Mount Qaf does not seem satisfying (IV, 476). A character who is introduced as "a valiant man" is called "a foolish man", in the same story, because he trusts in the loyalty of a bear (II, 320 ff.).

I bring this article to an end with one of Mawlavi's verses, concerning the Mathnawi and its stories: …

O my friends, hearken to this tale: in truth it
 is the very marrow of our inward state (II,
 6).

Notes

1. See B. Furuzanfar, Sharh-i Ahval-u Naqd-u Tahlil-i Athar-i Shaykh Farid al-Din 'Attar-i Nishaburi, "Biography and Critique of the Works of 'Attar of Nishaburi" (Tehran: Anjuman-i Athar-i Milli, Publication No. 41, 1960), pp. 50-51.
2. Ibid., pp. 53-57.
3. This and all subsequent references to the stories of the Mathnawi (text or translation) will be given in parentheses (volume and page number). They all concern Nicholson, op. cit.
4. Quoted from the Qur'an, trans. by E. H. Palmer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1900), 2 vols., I: 31.
5. cf. B. Furuzanfar, Ma'akhidh-i Qisas-u Tamthilat-i Mathnawi, "The Sources of the Stories and Parables of "Mathnawi" (Tehran: University of Tehran, Publication No. 214, 1955), pp. 93-94, 95-96, 115-116, 132. Hereafter cited as Ma'akhidh.
6. Ibid., pp. 66-67.
7. cf. Ibid., pp. 109, Muhammad Qazvini's statement.
8. cf. Ibid., pp. 31-32, 37, 49-51, 101, 3-6.
9. Quoted from The Divan-i Hafiz, trans. by Wilberforce Clarke (Calcutta: Government of India Central Printing Office, 1891), 2 vols., I: 408.
10. cf. M. A. Djamalzadih, Bang-i Nav, "Song of the Reed" (Complete Stories and Episodes of Mathnawi of Rumi), (Tehran: Book Society of Persia, 1958), pp. XXI-XXII.
11. cf. Ibid., pp. XIII-XXI.
12. cf. Ibid., p. 379, n. 3; p. 393, n. 4.