Euripides and Sophocles, particularly in his renownedElectra, delved into these stories, each playwright left his own subtle imprint on their timeless narratives.

Before Euripides's era, the prologue was delivered by a chorus, either spoken, chanted, or sung. By the time of Euripides, this tradition had evolved. Now, a single actor would step forward to address the gathering directly, weaving the story's past into the present. In Iphigenia in Taurus, for instance, Iphigenia herself stands before the audience with the simple declaration, "I am Iphigenia," before recounting the harrowing tale of her father’s attempt to sacrifice her—an event that takes center stage in another of Euripides’s works, Iphigenia at Aulis.

Chorus

While Sophocles, the elder dramatist, relegated the chorus from a leading figure to a vocal observer, Euripides took it a step further. He stripped the chorus of its central role, allowing it to drift away from the core action. In the works of Euripides, the chorus served as a melancholic echo, transforming the intense emotions of main characters into broader reflections of the human condition.

An example of this can be found when Iphigenia, Orestes, and Pylades leave the temple behind, aiming for the sea and their freedom. The chorus then sings of another sibling pair, Apollo and Artemis, where Apollo demands divine recompense for a grievance. Zeus, admiring his courage, restores harmony to the world. This tale of Apollo mirrors Athena's intervention for Iphigenia and Orestes. Euripides diminished the chorus further by granting it fewer songs and lines, a shift that signaled its eventual disappearance from the Greek theatrical tradition.

Deus ex Machina

The "deus ex machina," or "god from a machine," served as a frequent and dramatic closing device in ancient Greek theater. Typically, a deity would descend from the skies to resolve the play's conflicts. On the ancient stage, this divine descent was artfully managed with a crane, lifting the actor embodying the god. In the climactic scene of Euripides's play, the goddess Athena makes a grand entrance from above the temple porch, halting Thoas's pursuit of the escaping Greeks. She reveals that the gods commanded Orestes to steal the sacred statue, and her voice reaches the fleeing Orestes, instructing him to construct a new temple in Taurus to house the statue.

Moreover, Athena decrees new laws, among them the end of human sacrifice, declaring that henceforth a single drop of blood would suffice to honor Artemis. Her final pronouncements echo the rituals cherished by the Athenian spectators, leaving a lasting impression as the drama draws to a close.

5th century B.C.: In the ancient heart of Greece, a grand celebration unfolds each March, honoring Dionysus, the revered deity of wine and ecstasy. The city throngs together in joyous reverence, where the spirit of festivity intertwines with solemn respect. Theater stands as a cultural cornerstone, seamlessly woven into sacred rituals and reinforcing the bonds within the community.

Today: Theater has drifted away from its sacred origins, yet echoes of its religious connections remain in certain rituals staged during holy days by some faiths. In the wider realm of public theater, however, the profound sense of ceremonial gravity that once gripped ancient Athens has faded. Modern theater, now a source of entertainment, occupies a more marginal place in contemporary society's tapestry.

5th century B.C.: The fierce rivalry between Sparta and Athens, the titans of early Greece, has raged for a decade. Amidst this turmoil, the truce shatters as Iphigenia in Taurus graces the stage. These relentless wars, destined to stretch over twenty-seven years, ravage Athens; Sparta strikes mercilessly, laying waste to the city, obliterating fleets, and slashing the Athenian populace.

Today: For more than a century, the United States has basked in peace on its mainland. While its military ventures abroad, the American way of life remains largely unthreatened by foreign forces. Instead, challenges arise from within—urban violence and a gradual erosion of moral fiber cast their shadows.

5th century B.C.: In Athens, democracy is a cherished treasure, with words wielding greater influence than weapons. Every citizen, though women remain excluded, holds the right to defend themselves before a jury. Despite the shadows of slavery and other grim practices, democracy and freedom illuminate Athenian society.

Today: In the United States, democratic rights are extended to all citizens. Although disparities persist in reality, the legal framework promises protection of these rights and ensures legal counsel for those facing accusations, striving to uphold justice for all.

In the year 1779, the illustrious Johann Wolfgang von Goethe crafted a masterful prose adaptation of the five-act drama Iphigenia in Tauris, meticulously adhering to the intricate storyline originally woven by Euripides.

The same year saw the creative genius of Christoph Willibald Gluck come to life as he composed an opera rendition, titled Iphigenie en Tauride. This operatic masterpiece continues to grace stages worldwide. For those yearning to experience its sonic splendor, a recording is available on compact disk from Phillips.

SOURCES

Barlow, Shirley A. The Imagery of Euripides, Bnstol Classic cal Press, 1971.

Caldwell, R. "Tragedy Romanticized: Thelphigema Taunca" in Classical Journal, Vol 70,1974, pp. 23-40.

Decharme, Paul. Euripides and the Spirit of His Dramas, Kenmkat Press, 1968.

Dodds, E R. "Euripides the Irrationahst" in the Classical Review, Vol 43,1929, pp 97-104.

Dodds, E. R. The Greeks and the Irrational, University of California Press, 1951.

Paas, Ekbert. Tragedy and After, McGill-Queens University Press, 1984.

Grube, G. M A The Drama of Euripides, Methuen, 1961.

Halleran, Michael The Stagecraft in Euripides, Barnes & Noble, 1985.

Hopper, R J The Early Greeks, Barnes & Noble, 1976 Kerford, G B The Sophistic Movement, Cambridge, 1981.

Kott, Jan. The Eating of the Gods- An Interpretation of Greek Tragedy, Random House, 1970.

Melchinger. Siegfried Euripides, Frederick Ungar, 1973.

Michelini, Ann. Euripides and the Tragic Tradition, University of Wisconsin Press, 1987.

Nilsson, Martin P. Greek Folk Religion, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1961.

Rankin, H. D. Sophists, Socratics, and Cymes, Canberra, 1983.

Segal, Ench, Editor. Oxford Readings in Greek Tragedy, Oxford University Press, 1983.

Vellacott, Phillip. "Introduction'' in The Bacchae and Other Plays, translated by Vellacott, Penguin, 1973.

Vellacott, Phillip. Ironic Drama, Cambridge University Press, 1975.

Verrall, Arthur Woollgar. Euripides the Rationalist: A Study in the History of Art and Religion, Russell & Russell, 1967.

Whitman, Cedric. H. Euripides and the Full Circle of Myth, Harvard University Press, 1974.

FURTHER READING

Bieber, Margaret. The Greek and Roman Theatre, 1961.
A thorough description of the function and form of theatrical performances in ancient Greece and Rome.

Kitto, H. D. F. The Greeks Penguin Books, 1991.
This work describes the daily life, religion, philosophy, and political world of the Greeks, written in a conversational style with excerpts of famous speeches woven into the narrative to give a better sense of the Greek mind.

Lucas, F. L. Euripides and His Influence, Marshall Jones, 1923.
Lucas describes some of the innovations of Eunpides' s plays and how his work influenced later generations of writers.

Murray, Gilbert. Euripides and His Age, Oxford University Press, 1955.
A landmark work describing the historical context of Euripides's Athens, including the Peloponnesian War and the rise of the Sophists. Murray describes the function of such dramatic elements as the prologue, chorus, and messenger, and explains Euripides's unique use of them.