Historical Context
The Peloponnesian Wars
For twenty-seven tumultuous years, from 431 to 404 B.C., the Peloponnesian War raged intermittently, eventually culminating in the near obliteration of Athens at the hands of its formidable economic adversary, Sparta. For two decades, Pericles, the charismatic military general akin to a modern-day president of Athens, propelled the city to unprecedented heights with his eloquence and commitment to cultivating a genuine democracy through the enlightenment of the Greek populace. Yet, his ambition ignited the fierce antagonism between Athens and Sparta, triggering the Peloponnesian War, aptly named for Sparta's leadership of the southern Greek alliance known as the Peloponnese.
This epic conflict ebbed and flowed, characterized by ferocious battles, protracted sieges, and uneasy lulls. Athens commanded the seas, while the mighty Spartan warriors dominated the land. Ultimately, Sparta's pact with Persia infused their war chest with resources, enabling them to forge a formidable naval fleet and outmaneuver the beleaguered Athenian forces. Beneath the surface, the clash was fueled by Sparta's staunch commitment to oligarchy, threatened by Athens' burgeoning democratic ideals. The psychological toll of Athens' decimation in both populace and wealth was profound, leaving a proud city to capitulate to a foe whose political tenets they found detestable.
Greek Oracles and Omens
As the war dragged on, the art of interpreting dreams, deciphering omens, and unraveling the cryptic messages of oracles became ever more vital. In an era steeped in superstition, the human yearning to glimpse the future intensified amidst the crisis engulfing Athenian society and culture.
The renowned historian Herodotus chronicled the explosion of oracular activity before and during the war. Archaeologists have unearthed lead tablets inscribed with queries ranging from mundane concerns about land purchases to the reliance of generals on divine signs before taking action. Aware of this, political factions deftly manipulated omens to influence the decisions of leaders.
In "Iphigenia in Tauris," Iphigenia cunningly exploits Thoas's superstitions; she convinces him that the two Greeks are too tainted by matricide to be sacrificed. By pretending to purify both the statue and the would-be victims, she orchestrates their escape to the sea, ensuring Thoas looks away lest he be tainted. Meanwhile, she occupies him with ritual cleansing of the temple, showing how even captives could skillfully leverage their captor's superstitions to gain an upper hand.
Greek Theater
Each year in fifth-century Athens, the Great Dionysia—a religious festival dedicated to Dionysus—transformed the agora, the bustling marketplace, into a stage for theatrical performances. In a natural amphitheater with excellent acoustics, a wooden platform hosted the chorus and actors in the heart of a bowl-shaped arena. At the center stood an altar to Dionysus, a nod to the fertility rites that predated the festival. Performers donned masks and chanted their lines with minimal movement, adding a solemn ritualistic air to the plays.
The festival featured a dramatic competition where playwrights submitted tetralogies, including tragedies and a comic satyr play—a nod to fertility rituals of old. These performances celebrated the artistic spirit of Athens, merging religious devotion with cultural expression.
Style and Technique
Prologue
In the opening act, the prologue sets the stage for the unfolding drama, offering a glimpse into the narrative that will soon unravel before the audience. To modern theater-goers, yearning for the thrill of unexpected twists, this might seem peculiar. However, in ancient Greek times, the theater had a distinct role. The fifth-century Greek stage was intertwined with the sacred rituals of religion. Audiences gathered not just for entertainment, but for a ceremonial experience. The tales were well-known to them, and the prologue didn't introduce new plots but hinted at unique interpretations of familiar themes. While both...
(This entire section contains 524 words.)
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Euripides and Sophocles, particularly in his renownedElectra, delved into these stories, each playwright left his own subtle imprint on their timeless narratives.
Before Euripides's era, the prologue was delivered by a chorus, either spoken, chanted, or sung. By the time of Euripides, this tradition had evolved. Now, a single actor would step forward to address the gathering directly, weaving the story's past into the present. In Iphigenia in Taurus, for instance, Iphigenia herself stands before the audience with the simple declaration, "I am Iphigenia," before recounting the harrowing tale of her father’s attempt to sacrifice her—an event that takes center stage in another of Euripides’s works, Iphigenia at Aulis.
Chorus
While Sophocles, the elder dramatist, relegated the chorus from a leading figure to a vocal observer, Euripides took it a step further. He stripped the chorus of its central role, allowing it to drift away from the core action. In the works of Euripides, the chorus served as a melancholic echo, transforming the intense emotions of main characters into broader reflections of the human condition.
An example of this can be found when Iphigenia, Orestes, and Pylades leave the temple behind, aiming for the sea and their freedom. The chorus then sings of another sibling pair, Apollo and Artemis, where Apollo demands divine recompense for a grievance. Zeus, admiring his courage, restores harmony to the world. This tale of Apollo mirrors Athena's intervention for Iphigenia and Orestes. Euripides diminished the chorus further by granting it fewer songs and lines, a shift that signaled its eventual disappearance from the Greek theatrical tradition.
Deus ex Machina
The "deus ex machina," or "god from a machine," served as a frequent and dramatic closing device in ancient Greek theater. Typically, a deity would descend from the skies to resolve the play's conflicts. On the ancient stage, this divine descent was artfully managed with a crane, lifting the actor embodying the god. In the climactic scene of Euripides's play, the goddess Athena makes a grand entrance from above the temple porch, halting Thoas's pursuit of the escaping Greeks. She reveals that the gods commanded Orestes to steal the sacred statue, and her voice reaches the fleeing Orestes, instructing him to construct a new temple in Taurus to house the statue.
Moreover, Athena decrees new laws, among them the end of human sacrifice, declaring that henceforth a single drop of blood would suffice to honor Artemis. Her final pronouncements echo the rituals cherished by the Athenian spectators, leaving a lasting impression as the drama draws to a close.
Compare and Contrast
5th century B.C.: In the ancient heart of Greece, a grand celebration unfolds each March, honoring Dionysus, the revered deity of wine and ecstasy. The city throngs together in joyous reverence, where the spirit of festivity intertwines with solemn respect. Theater stands as a cultural cornerstone, seamlessly woven into sacred rituals and reinforcing the bonds within the community.
Today: Theater has drifted away from its sacred origins, yet echoes of its religious connections remain in certain rituals staged during holy days by some faiths. In the wider realm of public theater, however, the profound sense of ceremonial gravity that once gripped ancient Athens has faded. Modern theater, now a source of entertainment, occupies a more marginal place in contemporary society's tapestry.
5th century B.C.: The fierce rivalry between Sparta and Athens, the titans of early Greece, has raged for a decade. Amidst this turmoil, the truce shatters as Iphigenia in Taurus graces the stage. These relentless wars, destined to stretch over twenty-seven years, ravage Athens; Sparta strikes mercilessly, laying waste to the city, obliterating fleets, and slashing the Athenian populace.
Today: For more than a century, the United States has basked in peace on its mainland. While its military ventures abroad, the American way of life remains largely unthreatened by foreign forces. Instead, challenges arise from within—urban violence and a gradual erosion of moral fiber cast their shadows.
5th century B.C.: In Athens, democracy is a cherished treasure, with words wielding greater influence than weapons. Every citizen, though women remain excluded, holds the right to defend themselves before a jury. Despite the shadows of slavery and other grim practices, democracy and freedom illuminate Athenian society.
Today: In the United States, democratic rights are extended to all citizens. Although disparities persist in reality, the legal framework promises protection of these rights and ensures legal counsel for those facing accusations, striving to uphold justice for all.
Adaptations
In the year 1779, the illustrious Johann Wolfgang von Goethe crafted a masterful prose adaptation of the five-act drama Iphigenia in Tauris, meticulously adhering to the intricate storyline originally woven by Euripides.
The same year saw the creative genius of Christoph Willibald Gluck come to life as he composed an opera rendition, titled Iphigenie en Tauride. This operatic masterpiece continues to grace stages worldwide. For those yearning to experience its sonic splendor, a recording is available on compact disk from Phillips.
Bibliography
SOURCES
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Michelini, Ann. Euripides and the Tragic Tradition, University of Wisconsin Press, 1987.
Nilsson, Martin P. Greek Folk Religion, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1961.
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Vellacott, Phillip. "Introduction'' in The Bacchae and Other Plays, translated by Vellacott, Penguin, 1973.
Vellacott, Phillip. Ironic Drama, Cambridge University Press, 1975.
Verrall, Arthur Woollgar. Euripides the Rationalist: A Study in the History of Art and Religion, Russell & Russell, 1967.
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FURTHER READING
Bieber, Margaret. The Greek and Roman Theatre, 1961.
A thorough description of the function and form of theatrical performances in
ancient Greece and Rome.
Kitto, H. D. F. The Greeks Penguin Books, 1991.
This work describes the daily life, religion, philosophy, and political world
of the Greeks, written in a conversational style with excerpts of famous
speeches woven into the narrative to give a better sense of the Greek mind.
Lucas, F. L. Euripides and His Influence, Marshall Jones, 1923.
Lucas describes some of the innovations of Eunpides' s plays and how his work
influenced later generations of writers.
Murray, Gilbert. Euripides and His Age, Oxford University Press,
1955.
A landmark work describing the historical context of Euripides's Athens,
including the Peloponnesian War and the rise of the Sophists. Murray describes
the function of such dramatic elements as the prologue, chorus, and messenger,
and explains Euripides's unique use of them.