boldness, Doolittle, in particular, grappled with the emotional toll of her choices. She was a pioneer well ahead of her time in the realm of women's liberation, frequently seeking the counsel of psychiatrists, including the renowned Sigmund Freud, to help reconcile her emotional struggles with the societal constraints of her era.

Polyphonic Prose

Amy Lowell, celebrated as an imagist poet, immersed herself profoundly in the art of polyphonic prose. Fletcher, who also reveled in this technique, coined the term, but it was the French poet Paul Fort (1872–1960) who introduced this method to Lowell. She envisioned this form as akin to free verse, only liberated further. Embracing it as the most adaptable form of poetic articulation, she utilized every "voice" of poetry—meter, cadence, rhyme, alliteration, and assonance. Although presented in prose on paper, the text resonates with the melodies of poetry.

In her essay "A Consideration of Modern Poetry," penned for the North American Review in January 1917, Lowell elucidated this innovative style. Her initial application of the technique appeared in the collection Sword Blades and Poppy Seed (1914). Aldington lauded this collection in an Egoist article, urging emerging poets to study Lowell’s work to master the technique. As recounted in Hughes’s book, Aldington professed, “I am not a bit ashamed to confess that I have myself imitated Miss Lowell in this, and produced a couple of works in the same style.”

Though some critiques labeled her poetry as lacking depth, Lowell earned admiration for her linguistic dexterity, particularly her adeptness with polyphonic prose.

Free Verse

Ezra Pound crafted six guiding principles designed to illuminate the essence of Imagism and its divergence from traditional poetry. Among these, free verse emerged as a cornerstone, heralded for its capacity to convey a poet's unique voice. As recorded by David Perkins in A History of Modern Poetry: From the 1890s to the High Modernist Mode, the manifesto asserts: “We believe that the individuality of a poet may often be better expressed in free-verse than in conventional forms. In poetry, a new cadence means a new idea.” Abandoning rhyme liberated poets, enabling them to concentrate on vivid imagery.

Free verse was hardly novel, echoing through classical Greek, Old English (such as Beowulf), and French, American, and German poetry. However, Pound and his fellow imagists redefined it. They recognized rhythm as an emotional conduit, each unique rhythm embodying distinct feelings. Constraining rhythm to conventional forms stifled emotional expression, thus compromising authenticity. Freed from rigid standards, imagists unleashed their emotions through the fluidity of free verse. American imagists, in particular, embraced this form, crafting poetry that resonated with an American voice, distinct from its European origins.

The style sparked debate, as many critics struggled to discern the line between free verse and prose. What defines a poem? Critics argued that form was essential. Aldington defined free verse as “The prose-poem is poetic content expressed in prose form” (quoted from Hughes). Fletcher, however, perceived all well-crafted literature as poetry, whether following traditional rules or free verse. As Hughes quotes Fletcher: “The difference between poetry and prose is . . . a difference between a general roundness and a general squareness of outline.”

Common and Precise Language

Another pillar of the imagist manifesto concerned language. Imagists were urged to adopt the vernacular of everyday conversation rather than the ornate and formal language of traditional poetry. They were encouraged to be economical with words, using only what was necessary to depict an image and grounding their language in concrete terms to avoid abstraction.

Image

Pound’s conception of an image in imagist poetry was somewhat elusive. He emphasized precision and concentration in language to convey this image, yet he never explicitly defined the image itself. The manifesto granted poets the liberty to select any subject, decoupling "image" from subject matter. However, a fundamental goal of poetry was "To present an image" (quoted from Hughes). This image should transcend abstraction. If expressing an abstract concept, like an emotion, it should be rendered as a tangible image.

Hughes observed that Aldington endeavored to sharpen the concept of an image by advocating for poets to craft "clear, quick renderings of particulars without commentary." William Carlos Williams, occasionally dabbling in imagism, offered perhaps the most insightful definition of an image. He posited that ideas find their truest expression through tangible things, and there is no medium more capable of encapsulating ideational things than images. The imagists’ passion for isolating a single image led them to admire Japanese poetry, particularly haiku, which encapsulates a singular image in each poem.

Japanese Haiku

Emerging nearly seven centuries ago, Japanese haiku is a time-honored poetic tradition. This precise form consists of a succinct seventeen syllables spread across three lines. Given that the Japanese language is syllabic, rather than alphabetic, it naturally accommodates this structure more fluidly than English. Consequently, even though imagist poets were captivated by haiku, they never truly penned an authentic one. Nevertheless, haiku left an indelible mark on their creations. Among Japan’s most illustrious haiku poets is Matsuo Basho (1644–1694), whose celebrated poem exemplifies this tradition:

An old pond . . .
A frog jumps in—
The sound of water.

Consider, by way of comparison, Hilda Doolittle’s "Oread," which captures the imagist endeavor to emulate the haiku’s simplicity and singular focus:

Whirl up, sea—
whirl your pointed pines,
splash your great pines
on our rocks,
hurl your green over us,
cover us with your pools of fir.

The American Journey of Imagist Poets

Among the six towering figures of imagist poetry, four luminaries—Lowell, Doolittle, Pound, and Fletcher—emerged from the United States. With hearts set on mastering the art of poetry, they embarked on ventures across Europe. At that juncture, America was a barren landscape for poetic expression, compelling these passionate wordsmiths to seek inspiration from distant shores. In the eyes of Pound, the early twentieth-century American verse was lackluster. As Perkins quoted him, Pound declared, "Only the mediocrity of a given time can drive intelligent men of that time to ‘break with tradition.’” Fuelled by dissatisfaction with the stale conventions of the past century's poets, these American trailblazers journeyed to Europe, where they flung open the doors to the modernist epoch, wielding their imagist manifesto as a beacon of transformation.

Divergence and Innovation

Once they became entwined in the tapestry of the imagist movement, a fascinating evolution unfolded. Figures like Lowell and Fletcher began to explore divergent paths, shaping their verse with a distinctly American cadence. Their innovative efforts distinguished them from their British counterparts, adding a fresh, native resonance to their poetic language.

Early Twentieth Century

Early Twentieth Century: After years of tireless campaigning and courageous activism, women triumphantly secure the right to vote in Britain and the United States, marking a monumental shift in political empowerment.

Middle Twentieth Century

Middle Twentieth Century: Visionaries Gloria Steinem, Bella Abzug, Shirley Chisholm, and Betty Friedan unite to forge the National Women’s Political Caucus, galvanizing women to wield their political influence in pursuit of equality.

Today

Today: Despite its inception in the early twentieth century, the Equal Rights Amendment remains unratified by the majority of state legislatures in the United States, a testament to the ongoing struggle for gender equality.

Eastern Influence

Early Twentieth Century: As China and Japan embrace Western culture, a rich tapestry of classical Asian poetry begins to weave its way into Western literature, leaving an indelible mark.

Middle Twentieth Century: The Beatles' fascination with Eastern meditation opens the door to a wave of Asian spiritual traditions, such as Buddhism, which ripple through American culture.

Today: Japan's economy reaches unparalleled heights, as throngs of Japanese automobiles and electronic marvels inundate American markets.

Military Conflicts

Early Twentieth Century: The grim specter of World War I claims the lives of over 57,000 American soldiers.

Middle Twentieth Century: A succession of conflicts leave heavy tolls: World War II takes over 55,000 American lives, the Korean War sees over 33,000 troops lost, and the Vietnam War claims more than 58,000 American soldiers.

Today: The Gulf War leads to the loss of over 300 troops. In its wake, America embarks on its "War on Terrorism," following the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center, where over 3,000 perished or remain missing.

Cathay

Ezra Pound, though celebrated as a pivotal figure in defining Imagism, was not inherently known for crafting poetry steeped in imagist principles. His closest venture into the realm of pure imagism emerged with his 1915 publication, Cathay. This collection, featuring translations from the eighth-century Chinese poet Li Po (also known as Rihaku), showcases Pound's deep fascination with, and the profound impact of, classical Chinese and Japanese poetry on his imagist contemporaries.

Critics unanimously hold Cathay in high regard, often considering it one of the crowning achievements of Pound’s early literary career. This work not only underscores Pound's ties to Imagism but also heralds the dawn of Western acknowledgement and admiration for Asian poetry. Despite his lack of fluency in Chinese, Pound utilized existing translations by Ernest Fenollosa. This language barrier unexpectedly granted him creative liberty, allowing him to weave words and rhythms that reflected his poetic instincts rather than the original poet's intent.

Pound's renditions are marked by clarity and precision. Each line distills an image to its essence, with emotions conveyed in understated elegance—hallmarks of the Imagist movement. Following the completion of these translations, Pound pursued a deeper study of Chinese. This exploration into the ideographic language, where characters act as abstract symbols rather than mere alphabetic letters, sparked his innovation in poetic forms.

Goblins and Pagodas

In 1916, John Gould Fletcher published Goblins and Pagodas, a collection birthed from a nostalgic return to his roots in Little Rock, Arkansas, and later journeys to Boston, where he was schooled. The collection splits into two parts: “The Ghosts of an Old House,” a series of poems reflecting on the grand home of his upbringing and the familial influences of his formative years. The latter half, “The Symphonies,” ambitiously orchestrates the intellectual and emotional life of an artist through eleven movements, each dominated by a unique color-harmony. Fletcher’s intent was to weave poetry, music, and visual art into a tapestry that captured the complexity of his emotions.

According to Hughes, the first segment—echoes of Fletcher’s youth—might not impress individually but gains potency when considered collectively as a “mosaic.”

The second segment, however, is celebrated as Fletcher’s most imagist-influenced work. Hughes praises these pieces for their exquisite form and consistent excellence. More challenging and intricate than the initial poems, this section breaks new ground by blending poetry, music, and art. Fletcher assigns emotional values to colors, sometimes following traditional paths, like using blue for sadness, but also veering into the novel, such as orange symbolizing war. Among these, “Green Symphony” and “Blue Symphony” frequently find their way into anthologies.

Images of War

World War I cast a long shadow over Richard Aldington, profoundly shaping his outlook and prose. His 1919 collection, Images of War, comprises poems penned during and after the war's harrowing days. Having braved fifteen months on the front lines, Aldington crafted what many critics acclaim as some of the most poignant war poetry. His verses draw their beauty from their visceral intensity, immersing readers in Aldington's emotional landscape.

The poems vividly transport readers to the trenches, inviting them to share in Aldington’s reflections on existence, love, and the stark realities of conflict. Curiously, the wartime poems exhibit less cynicism than those written in the war's aftermath. The intervening years afforded Aldington time to ponder the broader implications of war, from its origins to its far-reaching consequences. While ensconced in battle, survival was his focus, producing deeply personal narratives. Once distanced from combat, Aldington's verses turned more bitter, reflecting the broader existential musings and the tragedy of human conflict. This collection marks a turning point, as Aldington’s future works began to embrace new influences beyond Imagism.

Otherworld: Cadences

In 1920, F. S. Flint released his final poetic collection, Otherworld: Cadences. The volume, heavily themed around the repercussions of war, is dedicated to fellow imagist poet Aldington, whose writings also bore the indelible imprint of World War I's devastation.

In the realm of poetry, the collection at hand does not solely echo the tumultuous cries of World War I. Instead, it delves into the intimate skirmishes of the soul, as exemplified in the titular poem, "Otherworld." Here, Flint ponders the daily conflict that ensnares him, as he rises each morning to a world clamoring for material pursuits, while his heart yearns for the tranquil solitude of a garden, where he can lose himself in the splendor of nature, the warmth of familial love, and the fellowship of kindred spirits. Describing this piece, Hughes observes: "The poem unfolds, painting the monotony of daily life and the weary return of the laborer to his abode, drained and dispirited."

Hughes remarks on the gentle nature of some verses within this anthology, dubbing them "soft poetry." They possess a tenderness uncommon among imagist works, yet resonate with genuine humanity. Although Flint occasionally crafts sharper compositions, Hughes notes that he diverges from his imagist peers in that he "struggles to mask his tenderness."

Flint's literary legacy includes two similarly titled collections, both featuring the word cadence. To Flint, cadence was paramount, representing a cornerstone of imagist poetry. In the foreword to Otherworld: Cadence, Flint asserts that unrhymed cadence distinguishes modern poetry from its traditional predecessors.

Sea Garden

Hilda Doolittle's inaugural compilation of twenty-eight imagist poems, Sea Garden (1916), is heralded by J. B. Harmer in his work, Victory in Limbo: Imagism 1908–1917, as one of the prime legacies of the Imagist group. This anthology marks Doolittle's deepest foray into imagism, with Harmer noting that post-publication, she began her retreat into more conventional poetic structures. Hence, this collection symbolizes both her entrance to and exit from the imagist movement.

Within the Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 45: American Poets, 1880–1945, Susan Stanford Friedman likens Doolittle's floral verses to Georgia O’Keeffe’s evocative flower paintings, asserting that "H. D.'s flowers indirectly suggest an intense eroticism, whose power comes precisely from its elusive, nonhuman expression." Through these verses, Doolittle unveils aspects of her persona, such as her "pride in her difference, and her separation from the conventional."

This self-assuredness shines in the poem "Sheltered Garden," where Doolittle voices her fatigue with manicured perfection and yearns for a fruit tree allowed to age and decay naturally upon its branches.

In H. D.: The Career of that Struggle, Rachel Blau DuPlessis discusses Doolittle's floral images, noting how they defy norms by portraying flowers in rugged terrains, applauding their scars: "These flowers of the sea gardens are of a harsh surprising beauty, slashed, torn, dashed yet still triumphant and powerful." This theme resonates in "Sea Rose," where Doolittle lauds the flower not for its fragility but for its steadfastness against tempestuous winds. This theme recurs in "Sea Poppies," as she depicts flowers ensnared by rocks and shattered shells, celebrated for their resilience.

Sword Blades and Poppy Seed

Amy Lowell immersed herself in the vibrant literary circles of London, mingling with imagist poets and eventually spearheading the movement’s promotion and organization. Upon her return to America in 1914, she unveiled her imagist poetry collection, Sword Blades and Poppy Seed. These poems reflect the doctrines of imagists, as well as the influence of French symbolist poets who deeply impacted Imagism. In the preface, Lowell expounds on her insights into free verse and her concept of polyphonic prose, embraced by several imagist poets.

Despite achieving popularity, Lowell often faced criticism for a perceived lack of originality. Her debut collection clearly mirrors the influence of Pound, Doolittle, and Fletcher. However, she was renowned for her astute promotion of the movement and her prowess in publishing fellow poets. The collection’s standout feature, praised by many, was her masterful use of polyphonic prose. Aldington, notably, was so captivated by her use of this form that he penned an essay urging young poets to study her work.

Polyphonic prose, a variant of free verse, employs alliteration (repeated consonant sounds), assonance (repeated vowel sounds), along with other poetic techniques to craft a work that appears as prose yet resonates with the rhythm of poetry. Although Lowell did not originate this form, she is credited with its popularization, showcasing her command of this technique within the pages of this collection.

Discover Ezra Pound's Voice

Ezra Pound Reads is a captivating audio collection where the legendary poet himself breathes life into his words, enchanting listeners with renditions of his renowned “Cantos,” alongside the evocative pieces “The Gypsy” and “The Exile’s Letter.” This auditory treasure is available through Harper Audio, inviting you to immerse yourself in Pound's poetic genius.

Explore the World of Imagist Poets

An array of fascinating websites beckons to those eager to delve into the lives and works of imagist poets. At American Poems, you can explore a collection of Doolittle's verses. Meanwhile, this site offers insightful analyses of some of Pound’s masterpieces.

Further enrich your exploration at Poets.org, where a selection of Pound's poems awaits. For those curious about Amy Lowell, this link provides an intriguing glimpse into her life and legacy.

Sources

Crawford, Fred D., British Poets of the Great War, Susquehanna University Press, 1988.

DuPlessis, Rachel Blau, H. D.: The Career of That Struggle, Indiana University Press, 1986, pp. 12–13.

Friedman, Susan Stanford, “Hilda Doolittle (H. D.),” in the Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 45: American Poets, 1880–1945, Gale Research, 1986, pp. 115–49.

Harmer, J. B., Victory in Limbo, Imagism 1908–1917, St. Martin’s Press, 1975.

Hughes, Glenn, Imagism and the Imagists, Humanities Press, 1960.

Perkins, David, A History of Modern Poetry: From the 1890s to the High Modernist Mode, Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1976.

Smith, Richard Eugene, Richard Aldington, Twayne Publishers, 1977.

Further Reading

Bergson, Henri, An Introduction to Metaphysics, translated by T. E. Hulme, Liberal Arts Press, 1949. Hulme is credited with creating the initial philosophy behind the Imagism movement. His inspiration came from two sources, the symbolist poets in France and Bergson’s metaphysics philosophy. This could be considered the book that started it all.

Carpenter, Humphrey, A Serious Character: The Life of Ezra Pound, Houghton Mifflin, 1988. After meeting with T. E. Hulme, Pound formulated Hulme’s ideas and organized the Imagism movement around them. Although Pound’s poetry is not totally representative of the imagist tenets, his writing was influenced by the movement that he started. As one of the most noted American poets, the reading of his life story offers an interesting background for the study of American poetry.

De Chasca, Edmund S., John Gould Fletcher and Imagism, University of Missouri Press, 1978. De Chasca studies Fletcher’s poetry and offers his interpretations and criticisms of this American imagist poet.

Doolittle, Hilda, HERmione, W. W. Norton and Company, 1981. This is a semi-autobiographical novel about Doolittle’s life during her twenties. At this time she was torn between old definitions of herself and her newfound world that included living in a foreign land, working with very powerful poets, and experimenting with sexuality. In this work, she discusses her relationship with Ezra Pound and her bisexuality and offers a vivid portrayal of her inner psychology.

Eliot, T. S., Aldous Huxley, and F. S. Flint, Three Critical Essays on Modern English Poetry, 1920, reprint, Folcroft Library Editions, 1974. The word modern in the title of this book can not be taken at face value as it was originally written in 1920. When these three exceptional and wellrespected writers refer to modern poetry, they mean the beginning of the modernist period, which means that imagist poetry is discussed. Eliot offers a brief criticism of poetry in general; Huxley discusses the subject matter of poetry; and Flint writes about the art of writing, especially as affected by the tenets of imagism.

Healey, E. Claire, and Keith Cushman, eds., Letters of D. H. Lawrence and Amy Lowell, 1914–1925, Black Sparrow Press, 1985. Lowell was the major spokesperson for the Imagism movement, and Lawrence, although not one of the major imagists, was affected by the imagist poets. Their correspondence offers the reader an inside look into their private discussions about American and British poetry at the turn of the century as well as their reflections on the movement.

Kirby-Smith, H. T., Origins of Free Verse, University of Michigan Press, 1996. One of the major controversies both in Britain and in the United States concerning the Imagism movement was the discussion of the use of free verse. This book offers an overview of the use of this form and tries to answer some of the questions that free verse has aroused: can free verse be categorized? or what is a prose poem?

Quennell, Peter, Baudelaire and the Symbolists, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1954. To better understand what Imagism was all about, it is best to comprehend the forces and influences that preceded this movement. Most of the imagist poets were heavily influenced by the French poets, and this book offers a historic perspective of some of the best of the nineteenth-century French poets and their Symbolism movement.