The Iliad is an epic poem and part of the ancient Greek oral tradition. Homer’s audience was an illiterate culture, and Homer himself was most likely illiterate. Many critics believe that the composition of the Iliad predated any form of writing in the Greek culture. There are some critics, however, who believe that the Iliad must have existed in writing, given its length and complexity. It would have been nearly impossible to maintain such a coherent form by oral transmission alone. This does not mean, however, that it existed in the form that we now know it or that it was accessible to the general public. If writing did exist, it is thought to have been practiced only by a few storytellers. These “Men of Words” would write down their best tales for their own use and to train their apprentices. They would not be seen by anyone else. Because of the enormous effort of writing, these books would become very valuable possessions and would be passed down from the storyteller to his successor (Murray, 95–96).

The poets themselves were highly regarded by their contemporaries and treated as fellow workers who attempted to bring beauty to life. The purpose of the tales was both to eloquently preserve the history of a people and to entertain. The stories consisted of a mix of common history borrowed from past poets and embellishments added by the poet. Because these poems were delivered orally, they were adapted and elaborated with each telling and were never the same twice. Whether written or not, the elaborate tales were recited by professional oral poets as entertainment at banquets, festivals, and fairs. It is known, for instance, that the Iliad was performed yearly at the Panathenaea in Athens, a great fair held every four years and lasting several days. At this festival, the Iliad was performed in relay fashion by many storytellers competing against each other. Each bard would attempt to make his portion of the poem more entertaining than the others. This resulted in some stretching and embellishment of facts. These were permitted as long as the teller did not deviate too far from known history.

A poet would rely on several routine devices to remember the core events of the narrative. These included the following:

1) Epic Hero—a virtuous and noble figure, proven in battle, who represents his nation, culture, or race.

2) Length—while each episode was designed to be recounted in a single evening, the entire work is quite long.

3) Lofty Style—the tone of the work is primarily serious, and the style is exalted—worthy of the subject.

4) Epic Similes—the poem contains extended comparisons between one element or character and something foreign to the poem. The simile helps the reader to see the object in a different way and says a great deal with fewer words than would otherwise be necessary.

5) Catalogs/Genealogies—the work usually contains long inventories or catalogs of characters, equipment, or other elements. Also included are elaborate genealogies of major characters, underlying their history and importance.

6) Supernatural Involvement—the main action of the work always includes involvement of the gods to either help or hinder the hero.

7) Invocation—most poems begin with an invocation to the Muses, or to some other higher power, requesting guidance. One Muse often invoked is Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry. The invocation serves as an introduction to the action that is about to be recounted.

8) In Medias Res—it is not uncommon for an epic poem to begin in the middle of the action and proceed to fill in details of events that occurred earlier.

9) Voyage Across the Sea—most epic poems include a sea voyage by the hero or other major character. This convention gives the poet an opportunity to test the hero in unfamiliar circumstances.

10) Trip to the Underworld—many epics also contain a dangerous visit to the underworld, where the hero gathers advice and information from the dead.

11) Epic Battles—another feature is accounts of fantastic battles between individuals or between vast armies.

The mark of a skilled poet was that he could fit his story into the rigid epic format and add his own style to keep the audience interested and entertained. The Iliad is nearly ten times longer than what would ordinarily be performed in one sitting. Other than the marathons in Athens, it was most likely performed in pieces, with the poet relating one episode of the whole at each performance. The stories of the best epic poets were passed down from generation to generation. The Iliad and the Odyssey were passed down as part of the oral tradition until finally a literate culture wrote them down—probably during the sixth century BCE. No other ancient Greek poet has been so completely preserved.

The Greek text of the Iliad is written in dactylic hexameter. The rhythm is therefore one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables, with six of these groups to a line. Many phrases, such as “darkness covered his eyes,” or “white armed” to describe a woman, are repeated over and over throughout the poem. This rhythm and formulaic phrasing helped the poet remember his tale. The repetition also helped to stress certain points to a listening audience. While they may not have heard something the first time it was said, they were likely to catch it the second or third time. There are many incidents that recur throughout the work as well, such as the sending of messengers, the assembly of forces, arming for battle, friends avenging the death of friends, and feasting. The effect of all of these techniques in the Iliad is a remarkable coherence and unity that far surpasses most epic poems of the same period.

Homer’s work differs from many epic poems in another significant way. The subject of the vast majority of these poems involves men possessing supernatural power, serving some higher purpose or fulfilling a mission. They are larger than life in their scope. The Iliad, however, is marked by the distinct absence of these devices. The action takes place in the span of days rather than months or years; the gods do interact with the mortals, yet they simply encourage existing possibilities rather than intervening in supernatural ways; the action is full of heroes, yet there is no exaggerated heroism. The result is a perception of the immediate rather than the eternal; a humanizing of the myth. We see the suffering and falling of real men and women rather than of superhuman heroes who are not at all like us. While nearly all of Homer’s characters are heroes, they have their moments of weakness and fear as well as moments of great confidence. It has been suggested that this strong focus on purely human experience represents the first instance of art for art’s sake, rather than art that served the larger purpose of myth or religion (Vivante, 134).

Homer's epic, "The Iliad," unfolds across a tapestry of diverse and significant locales, each steeped in myth and historical conjecture. From the ancient city of Troy to the divine peak of Mount Olympus, these settings provide not only the backdrop but also integral elements that shape the narrative and the characters' fates. This article explores these places, examining their roles and the myths and legends that surround them.

Troy (Ilios)

Located on the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea in what is now Turkey, Troy, or Ilios, is central to the events of "The Iliad." Although Homer wrote of a Troy existing centuries before his time, his detailed knowledge of the region suggests personal familiarity. The city is entwined with divine intervention; legend credits its construction to Apollo and Poseidon, who later played roles in its downfall. While mythology offers one narrative, historians propose that the true conflict stemmed from Greek desires to stop Trojan control over critical trade routes through the Dardanelles.

Pergamos

Pergamos, Troy's fortified acropolis, serves as the locus of both worship and governance. At its heart lies the temple of Athena and the palace of King Priam, which doubles as the royal residence and governmental hub. The citadel's defensive strength is legendary; as long as it remains under Trojan control, the city stands. Hector's journey through the Scaean Gate, watched by his wife Andromache from above, is emblematic of the citadel's vital role in Troy's defense.

Ship Station

West of Troy, the ship station marks the Greek foothold where their ships are beached. This area becomes a focal point in book 15 when Hector breaches Greek defenses and ignites a ship, casting doubt upon the Greeks' victory and heightening their sense of urgency and peril.

Greek Camp

The Greek camp, positioned between the ships and battlefield, is a hub of activity for the Greek forces. Here, strategies are debated, alliances formed, and disputes aired. Under Nestor's counsel in book 7, the Greeks fortify their camp with a wall, watchtowers, and a protective moat, underscoring the strategic importance of this location.

Mount Ida

Southwest of Troy rises Mount Ida, a divine vantage point for Zeus to oversee the battle. From here, he monitors and influences the conflict, his thunderbolts a signal of divine displeasure. It is also on this peak, Gargaron, that Hera attempts to beguile Zeus, demonstrating the mountain's role as a stage for celestial drama.

Mount Olympus

As Greece's highest mountain, Mount Olympus is celebrated as the mythical dwelling of the gods. In "The Iliad," it serves as a celestial council chamber where gods observe and intervene in mortal affairs. Their interactions often reflect the same conflicts and passions as those of the humans below, with the wounded deities retreating here for recovery.

Hades

Hades, the underworld realm ruled by its namesake, is where spirits reside after death. In book 23, the ghost of Patroclus appears to Achilles, highlighting the importance of proper burial rites for passage into this shadowy afterlife. This underscores the cultural belief in honoring the dead to ensure their peace in the world beyond.

The Homeric poems, including the Iliad and the Odyssey, were shaped over centuries, drawing from a rich tapestry of historical and cultural elements. Understanding their context requires delving into a timeline of overlapping epochs, each contributing distinct influences. This journey begins in the Bronze Age, traverses through the tumultuous Dark Age, and culminates with the Iron Age advancements.

The Bronze Age

The epic tales of the Trojan War, as recounted in Homeric poetry, were set in the late Bronze Age, which started around 1550 BCE. This period, also known as the Mycenaean era, is noted for its opulent burial sites discovered by Heinrich Schliemann at Mycenae. The era was characterized by relative stability, despite ongoing conflicts and raids. The eastern Mediterranean was dominated by the Hittite Empire in central Turkey, ancient Egypt, and the Mycenaean kingdoms in Greece and its islands.

These "great kings" presided over literate societies, evidenced by records and official documents, such as the Linear B tablets found at Pylos. They engaged in diplomacy with smaller buffer kingdoms that were bound by treaties for military and economic support. These subordinate kingdoms, however, were frequently targeted for raids by rival powers due to their strategic positions.

Trade flourished throughout the Mediterranean, boosted by Mycenaean pottery, which served both artistic and practical purposes in transporting goods like oil and perfume. Military engagements, as depicted in the Iliad, involved face-to-face combat, though evidence suggests chariots were used more strategically than Homer described, fighting ahead of the infantry rather than merely transporting warriors.

The Trojan War, if it occurred, likely happened near the end of this prosperous period. Greek calculations put the war at 1184 BCE, while modern archaeology suggests a date around 1250 BCE. Despite their victory, the conquerors enjoyed their success for a short time as the civilization began to decline.

The Dark Age

Around 1220 BCE, the mysterious destruction and subsequent abandonment of Pylos signaled the start of a decline leading into the Dark Age, lasting until approximately 1050 BCE. This period marked the slow fading of Mycenaean civilization, leaving a void filled with hardship over about 250 years, ending with the first Olympiad's traditional date in 776 BCE, near the time Homer is believed to have lived.

Little is known about the Dark Age, as writing was lost, and trade dwindled to minimal local exchanges. Luxury goods, such as elaborate pottery, became scarce, and population levels plummeted by as much as 75% from the heights of the Bronze Age. The archaeological record offers scant insights into the era's societal structures and daily life.

The Iron Age

With the onset of the eleventh century BCE, Greeks began adopting iron over bronze, cremating their dead, and establishing colonies along what is now Turkey's west coast. By Homer's lifetime in the mid-eighth century BCE, these practices were entrenched, heralding a period of recovery and growth.

The reintroduction of writing, thanks to an alphabet borrowed from the Phoenicians, marked a turning point. Trade revived, assisted by newly founded colonies along the Ionian coast, which maintained amicable ties with their mother cities. Population growth spurred colonization westward to Sicily, Italy, and the south of France.

Political structures shifted, with noble families supplanting kings in governance, leading to the formation of the polis, or city-state. This period, known for its Geometric art style, also saw the emergence of a Greek national identity, partly driven by cultural touchstones such as the Olympic Games and Homeric epics. More coordinated military tactics, like the "hoplite" formation, came into use, indicating evolving warfare strategies.

Religious practices evolved too, becoming more standardized. While the Homeric heroes often engaged in family-centered rituals, actual temples began to emerge in the archaeological record around the ninth century BCE. These developments suggest a shift towards organized worship and communal religious practices.

Post-Homer, Greek society experienced fluctuations in governance, alternating between aristocratic and democratic models, and experimenting with one-man rule. This dynamic period preceded the renowned Golden Age of the fifth century BCE, a time of flourishing culture and intellectual achievement.

Background: The Homeric Tradition

The Iliad stands as one of literature's greatest works, yet little is known of its enigmatic author, Homer. Traditionally believed to be a blind poet from Smyrna, in present-day Turkey, Homer's identity remains elusive. Xenophanes of Colophon, a sixth-century B.C. philosopher, makes the earliest recorded mention of him. Homer's name appears in the writings of Plato, Aristotle, and Herodotus, but concrete evidence of his life remains absent, partly due to the pre-literate era in which he supposedly lived.

Scholars have debated the authorship of the Iliad and related works, noting stylistic similarities suggesting a single poet may have created them. Some propose that Homer was the original poet, with later additions and edits by others. Alternatively, the Iliad could be a compilation of works by various poets, possibly derived from shorter pieces by Homer or his contemporaries.

Despite unresolved authorship debates, the Iliad and Odyssey have profoundly influenced literature, laying the groundwork for epic traditions continued by Virgil's Aeneid, Dante's Commedia, Milton's Paradise Lost, and many more. Their impact underscores the enduring legacy of these ancient texts, offering a window into the complexities of human experience across ages.

As the earliest surviving work of its kind, the Iliad not only showcases the elements of epic poetry but also establishes them. For over 500 years, epic poetry in the West adhered closely to the form of the Iliad, with only minor adjustments being made over time.

Meter

While English meter relies on patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables, Greek meter is based on patterns of long and short syllables, where generally, two short syllables are equivalent to one long syllable. Greek poetry does not rhyme but employs alliteration and assonance (the repeated use of similar consonant and vowel patterns, respectively).

The Iliad is composed in dactylic hexameters, the "standard" form for epic poetry. This specific meter is often called "epic meter" or "epic hexameter." The term hexameter indicates that each line contains six metrical units, or "feet." The term dactylic describes the metrical pattern of each foot: typically, one long syllable followed by two short syllables, though variations are permitted. For instance, the final foot in each line is almost always a spondee (two long syllables instead of one long and two short ones). Homer occasionally changes the meter to match the action being described, using more dactyls for fast-paced scenes (such as galloping horses) and more spondees for slow or sorrowful moments (like at I.3, where "strong souls by thousands" are "hurled down to Hades").

Simile

The Iliad is renowned for its extensive use of similes, or comparisons. Nearly every scene features at least one simile. Interestingly, despite the poem's battlefield setting, most similes are drawn from peaceful daily activities: for example, comparing the ranks of soldiers to rows of grain in a field.

Homer’s similes are derived from the everyday objects and events familiar to his audience. Consider this passage from book 11, where the Trojans are pushing Ajax back towards his own lines:

As when country-dwelling men and their dogs have driven a tawny lion away from the cattle pen... as when boys are driving a sluggish donkey past a cornfield and many sticks have been broken across his back, but he gets in anyway and mows down the deep grain... (XI.547-48; 557-59).

Here, two different similes illustrate the same action, and both would have been instantly recognizable and evocative to anyone accustomed to tending fields and flocks.

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing, the practice of “hinting” at future developments in the plot either explicitly (through prophecies, etc.) or implicitly via subtle hints, is quite prevalent in the Iliad. It is not uncommon (aligning with the Greek religious beliefs during Homer’s time) for the dying to make some kind of prophecy—usually predicting the imminent death of their killer, as seen when the dying Hector foretells Achilles' death in XXII.355-60. However, this is not always the case.

A more nuanced example of foreshadowing is found in the name of Achilles’s homeland, Phthia. This name closely resembles the Greek verb phthiô, which translates to “decay, wane, waste away, perish.” Interestingly, the term for tuberculosis (“consumption” in old English) was once phthisis, derived from this same verb. Achilles, destined to die in his youth, hails from a place that could be translated as “Deathville.”

Flashbacks

This technique, where a character recalls a past event, is in its early stages in the Iliad. It is believed that the events in book 3 represent an extended flashback, though they are not explicitly marked as such. Otherwise, it is hard to understand why, after nine years of war, King Priam would not recognize the main Achaean leaders or why no one had proposed a duel between the two interested parties to settle the war’s outcome.

Ring Composition

Ring composition is a technique often used in poetry, where the writer “comes full circle” or revisits a particular theme, statement, or event at the end of a work (or significant segment) that was introduced at the beginning. In the Iliad, the poem starts with a ransom and a quarrel in book 1, continues with a figurative mustering of the armed forces in book 2, followed by a duel in book 3. In book 22, there is another duel, this time between Achilles and Hector, followed by a literal mustering of the armies for Patroclus’s funeral games in book 23. The poem concludes in book 24 with Priam ransoming Hector’s body from Achilles, thus “coming back around” to the starting point.

The events leading to the Trojan War are said to have started with a wedding feast in Troy. The celebration marked the union of Thetis, a goddess, and Peleus, a mortal man. Eris, the goddess of discord, crashed the party and left a golden apple inscribed with "For the Fairest" among the guests. This sparked a rivalry between three goddesses—Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite—each convinced she deserved the apple. To avoid making a difficult decision, Zeus, the king of the gods and the host of the feast, appointed Paris, a shepherd, to judge. Each goddess offered Paris a bribe: Hera promised power and a kingdom, Athena offered wisdom and military success, and Aphrodite tempted him with the love of Helen of Sparta, the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris chose Aphrodite's offer, thereby angering the other two goddesses.

However, Helen was already married to King Menelaus. Paris, undaunted, revealed his true identity as a prince who had been abandoned at birth by his mother, Hecuba, due to a prophecy that he would cause Troy's destruction. Paris then traveled to Sparta and won Helen's affection, leading her to elope with him to Troy (or he abducted her, depending on the account). Menelaus was furious upon discovering Helen's disappearance. He assembled a coalition and launched a fleet of a thousand ships to retrieve her, giving rise to the phrase "the face that launched a thousand ships."

Upon reaching Troy, Menelaus's army encountered the formidable wall encircling the city. This wall had been constructed with the aid and protection of Poseidon, the sea god. However, the Trojans had failed to compensate Poseidon for his assistance, causing him to withdraw his protection. Despite this, the wall remained a formidable barrier, and Menelaus’s forces struggled to breach it for ten years. After losing two of their greatest warriors—Ajax and Achilles—the Achaians sought guidance from the "oracles," or fortune-tellers.

The strategy that ultimately led to Troy's downfall was the renowned Trojan Horse. The Achaians constructed a massive wooden horse, hollowed out to accommodate numerous soldiers. To create the illusion of retreat, the rest of the army sailed away in their ships, making it seem as though they had finally abandoned their siege. They left behind one soldier, tasked with informing the Trojans that the horse was a gift meant to appease the goddess Athena. According to legend, the Achaians hoped the Trojans would destroy the horse, thereby incurring Athena's wrath upon themselves. However, believing the army had departed, the Trojans accepted the story. Fearing to provoke Athena's anger, they brought the horse within their city walls. Under the cover of night, the hidden Achaian soldiers emerged from the horse and opened the city gates for their returning comrades. Troy was subsequently set ablaze and plundered, with only a few managing to escape the ensuing slaughter.

The grand theme Homer selected for the Iliad was the Trojan War. By the time the poem was created, the Trojan War likely occurred several centuries earlier. The poet could safely assume that his audience was well-versed in the key events and myths surrounding the war. This allowed Homer to begin the narrative towards the war's end, only briefly referencing essential earlier episodes. Although the Greek translation of the title means “the poetry about Troy,” the epic’s true focus is on Achilles' experiences, with the action unfolding over a few weeks or months. Homer indicates in the Iliad that the war had been ongoing for ten years as his story starts. Historically, this is improbable. Limited archaeological and cultural evidence suggests the conflict at Troy lasted only a few years at most.

The actual history of the Trojan War, as we know it, is much less vivid and detailed than the myth. Some scholars argue that the setting of the Iliad should be the Greek mainland, where evidence points to a prolonged siege during the early Mycenaean Age. It is widely accepted that the events depicted in the Iliad may represent widespread destruction across a large area rather than the fall of a single city. This theory helps to rationalize Homer’s ten-year conflict. Between 1400 BCE and 1180 BCE, significant destruction occurred on both sides of the Aegean Sea, devastating much of the Mycenaean world. The period from 1100 to 900 BCE saw mass migrations, with survivors of the destroyed cities fleeing to Athens, Asia Minor, and the Aegean islands. This widespread devastation was one of the greatest calamities in history and would undoubtedly be remembered.

This theory also sheds light on some of the peculiar customs described in the Iliad. For instance, burning the dead is unusual compared to the typical Greek practice of burial. However, during this period, the greatest insult was the desecration of a corpse. This is evident throughout the Iliad with numerous instances of threatened mutilation and bodies being thrown to the dogs. In a time when fleeing from invaders could happen at any moment, the safety of buried bodies from defilement by barbaric warriors was uncertain. Therefore, it was more practical to burn the bodies. When a body is burned, nothing remains to be defiled; it simply vanishes. The elaborate funeral rituals accompanying the burning allow the living to symbolically accompany the deceased on their journey to the underworld. Mourners abstain from food and water, cut their hair, and remain unclean to demonstrate their devotion and willingness to suffer. The funeral games held after the death of a hero enable the living to redefine the social order without the deceased. Participants compete for glory in these games just as the fallen hero did on the battlefield. The winners receive valuable possessions that the hero had acquired in battle, thereby earning glory for themselves.

The warriors in the Iliad adhere strictly to a heroic code that dictates their behavior in all social interactions. Above all, the hero valued his honor. Honor was largely determined by prowess in battle but also significantly by adherence to the heroic code. This code is evident in many instances during battle, such as when pacts of friendship from several generations past are honored amid great carnage. Warriors frequently avenge the deaths of their companions, showcasing the code's influence. The code also manifests in the “guest-host” relationship, which prescribes specific hospitality and behavior. It has been suggested that Menelaus's true motive for waging war on Troy is less about Helen's disappearance and more about Paris's blatant violation of his responsibilities as a guest in the house of the Achaian. One effect of such a code is to promote conformity and an ordered society. This unity is crucial in battle, as each warrior relies on his comrades to protect him and to avenge him if he falls. Paris represents a disruption of Troy's social order. Similarly, Achilles, in his anger towards Agamemnon, acts as an individual detached from society. A significant aspect of his ultimate transformation involves his reintegration into the community and the restoration of social order.

Although the Iliad covers just a brief episode of a much larger conflict, the audience would have been well aware of the extensive background that Homer omits. This background includes the war's origins, the events leading up to the Iliad's narrative, the ultimate fall of Troy, and Achilles' death. By not addressing the cause and specific details of this war, Homer transforms the Iliad into a representation of all wars.

• Late Bronze Age (the era of the Trojan War): Burial practices involve inhumation. The deceased are laid to rest, often with grave goods and weapons, particularly among the elite, in dug graves, stone-walled tombs known as “cist graves,” or tholos tombs shaped like beehives, frequently located under a hill.

  Iron Age (Homer’s time): The dead are cremated, and the ashes are collected in a richly decorated urn, which is then buried in a specially dug pit. For significant burials, a mound of earth or stone, called a “tumulus,” is raised above the grave, and the site may be further marked with a column or another type of grave marker.

  Late twentieth century: Most burials are inhumation, although an increasing number of people are opting for cremation.

• Late Bronze Age: Writing exists but is mainly in cumbersome, syllabic forms such as Egyptian hieroglyphics, Mycenaean Linear A and B scripts, or Hittite/Akkadian cuneiform. Literacy is likely confined to the highest levels of the aristocracy and a professional class of scribes, bureaucrats, diplomats, etc.

  Iron Age: Literacy, at least in the Greek-speaking world, is being gradually rediscovered with a new alphabet where each letter represents a specific sound rather than an entire syllable. Literacy remains mostly restricted to the upper classes and some professionals, like rhapsodes and certain artists.

  Late twentieth century: The majority of the population can read and write well enough to handle their own business affairs.

• Late Bronze Age: Trade, although challenging and time-consuming, is fairly widespread. Evidence suggests, for instance, that Mycenae was strategically built to allow its rulers to control key trade routes and collect taxes from traders.

  Iron Age: Trade diminishes as the "great kings" who secured long and valuable trade routes are no longer around, although goods are beginning to move more freely once again.

  Late twentieth century: Trade occurs on a global scale, facilitated by mass transportation and instantaneous communication—methods that were unimaginable in ancient times.

• Late Bronze Age: Chariots are a crucial part of the military, often used to break through enemy infantry or protect one’s own troops. Infantry tactics are nearly non-existent, with combat largely consisting of individual, hand-to-hand battles as depicted in the Iliad.

  Iron Age: Chariots become rare due to their high cost. Coordinated infantry tactics, known as hoplite tactics, start to develop, where groups of men fight and defend in structured formations—a concept Homer occasionally references in the Iliad.

  Late twentieth century: Warfare is conducted almost entirely by trained professionals of all genders, in stark contrast to ancient methods. Tactics are meticulously coordinated, often from behind the lines, to an extent unimaginable to Homer and his contemporaries. Unlike ancient warriors who often knew the lineage of their opponents, modern soldiers may never see their adversaries face-to-face during an entire conflict.

• No films have been made that are directly adapted from the Iliad. However, several films have explored other aspects of the Troy legends, such as Michael Cacoyannis’s The Trojan Women in 1971 and Iphigeneia in 1977.
• In 1985, the British Broadcasting Corporation produced a television series titled In Search of the Trojan War, starring Michael Wood. The companion book for this series was published by the BBC in 1986.
• In 1992, Penguin Highbridge Audio released an audiocassette version of Robert Fagles’s translation of the Iliad, which includes six cassettes and a companion book. They also offer a combined audio version of Fagles’s translations of both the Iliad and the Odyssey. In 1996, Harper Audio released a cassette version of Richmond Lattimore’s translation, narrated by Anthony Quayle. Additionally, Norton provides a partial rendition of the Iliad in its original Greek, read by Stephen Daitz (1990).
• Several films have Homeric qualities or reference Homer and themes from his works. For instance, in the 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail, crusading knights attempt to infiltrate a castle by hiding inside a gigantic wooden rabbit they construct and leave outside the walls. However, they forget to actually hide inside their "Trojan rabbit." In 1993’s Sommersby, Richard Gere's character, an Odysseus-like figure, returns home from war after many years and reads the Iliad to his son. Gere’s character can also be seen as a Hector-like figure who fights and ultimately dies for his country, despite knowing the cause is hopeless.
• The Perseus Project, managed by the Classics Department at Tufts University, is an excellent online resource for studying classical texts. The URL for the homepage is http://www.perseus.tufts.edu. On this site, you can find the original Greek text (the Oxford Classical Texts version) and the Murray translation (from the Loeb Classical Library edition) of the Iliad. Navigate to the “Texts Greek/English” button on the main site map, then select either the “Ancient Greek texts” or the “English translations of Greek texts” link, and choose Homer as the author and the Iliad as the text. Many names in the translation feature hypertext links that provide further information when clicked. The Perseus material is also available on CD-ROM (Macintosh format only, with a Windows version in development) from Yale University Press.

Several quotes from the Iliad are sourced from this translation:
Homer. The Iliad of Homer. Translated by Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1951.

Sources

Bloom, Harold, ed. Homer’s The Iliad: Modern Critical Interpretations. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987.

Fables, Robert, and George Steiner, eds. Homer: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.

Michalopoulos, Andre. Homer. New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1966.

Murray, Gilbert. The Rise of the Greek Epic. New York: Oxford University Press, 1960.

Sheppard, J. T. The Pattern of the Iliad. New York: Haskell House, 1966.

Vivante, Paolo. The Iliad: Action as Poetry. Boston: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1991.

Sources for Further Study

Biers, William R. The Archaeology of Greece: An Introduction. Cornell University Press, 1980. A comprehensive basic introduction to Greek archaeology, featuring numerous illustrations.

Camps, William A. An Introduction to Homer. Oxford University Press, 1980. A thorough introduction to Homer and his poetry, including extensive citations from both of his epic poems.

Easterling, P. E., and B. M. W. Knox, eds. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature, Vol. 1, Part 1, “Early Greek Poetry.” Cambridge University Press, 1989. This volume offers a concise, albeit technical, overview of the earliest surviving Greek writers. It is the first in a Cambridge series that spans the entire history of Greek literature through the Hellenistic period and into the Roman Empire.

Edwards, Mark W. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. Although somewhat technical, this work provides a solid literary analysis.

Hammond, N. G. L. A History of Greece to 322 BC, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 1986. This is the standard history of Greece up to the era of Alexander the Great. While the text is dense and the print small, it remains an invaluable resource.

Harvey, Paul, compiler. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford University Press, 1984. An extremely useful reference tool for basic facts, names, and dates.

Herodotus. The Persian Wars. Translated by George Rawlinson; introduction by Francis R. B. Godolphin. Modern Library, 1942. Despite its age, this remains one of the best translations of Herodotus. While focusing on the conflict between the Greeks and Persians, Herodotus delves into various other fascinating and often fanciful historical details, including several mentions of Homer and his works.

Homer. The Iliad. Translated by Robert Fagles; introduction and notes by Bernard Knox. Viking, 1990. This is one of the most recent and highly acclaimed translations of the Iliad. Fagles’ rendition in blank verse is more liberal than those by Lattimore or Fitzgerald, yet it maintains the poetic essence of the epic. Knox’s introduction is both well-written and highly informative.

———. Homeri Opera, 3rd ed., Vols. 1 and 2. Edited by David B. Monro and Thomas W. Allen. Oxford University Press, 1920. The definitive edition of the original Greek text.

———. The Iliad of Homer. Translated by Richmond Lattimore. University of Chicago Press, 1961. Lattimore’s translation preserves Homer’s original line structure without compromising readability or narrative flow.

———. The Iliad. Translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Anchor, 1975. This is a fairly loose verse translation of the epic. Some readers might find Fitzgerald’s direct transliteration of Greek names to be perplexing.

Knox, Bernard, ed. The Norton Book of Classical Literature. W. W. Norton, 1993. This book is more a collection of selected passages from renowned classical works, but it still provides essential information about the authors and texts it covers.

Levi, Peter. The Pelican History of Greek Literature. Penguin, 1985. This is an excellent introductory reference for Greek literature, and it does not require any prior knowledge of Greek.

Reynolds, L. D., and N. G. Wilson. Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 1974. This is a rather technical book that explores the “book trade” in antiquity and the process by which ancient texts have been preserved and transmitted from the classical era.

Silk, Michael Homer. The Iliad (Landmarks of World Literature series). Cambridge University Press, 1987. This is a handy, affordable, pocket-sized overview of the epic and its author.

Solomon, Jon D. “In the Wake of Cleopatra: The Ancient World in the Cinema Since 1963.” Classical Journal, Vol. 91, no. 2, 1996, pp. 113-40. This article provides a timeline with essential information on film and television productions that are based on or reference works from classical antiquity.

Thucydides. The Peloponnesian War. Translated by Richard Crawley; revised with an introduction by T. E. Wick. Modern Library, 1982. This translation of Thucydides is considered one of the best in English, despite its age. It is highly readable.

Wood, Michael. In Search of the Trojan War. British Broadcasting Corporation, 1986. This is the companion book to the BBC series of the same name. It is easy to read, richly illustrated, and Wood carefully distinguishes between his speculations and the consensus of scholarly opinion on any given topic.