Tiberius has twelve villas here, and it is the place where he spends most of his leisure time after leaving Rome. A number of rocky islands lie north of the bay where various members of the imperial family are exiled. Augustus’s daughter, Julia, and later, her daughter Agrippina, are sent to Pandataria, Nero to Ponza, and Postumus to Planasia.

I, Claudius was written from the Spanish island of Mallorca in 1934. Within two years, the Spanish Civil War would force Graves and his partner, the poet Laura Riding, to flee for America. Meanwhile, the Italian fascist dictator, Benito Mussolini, Spain’s right-wing General Francisco Franco, and the German National Socialists, under the leadership of Adolph Hitler, were gaining power in their respective countries and threatening greater Europe.

To understand how the convergence of these historical and political events affected the reception of I, Claudius, it is necessary to understand the historical background of the book’s story. Although a work of fiction that relies on the author’s imagination to fill in some historical voids, the book itself is generally accepted by critics as a historically accurate reflection of the Roman Empire.

In 23 B.C., the Roman Senate granted Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Octavianus, the grandnephew of Julius Caesar and more commonly known simply as Augustus, the titles and powers of Imperium proconsulare maius and tribunicia potestas for life, effectively ending the Roman Republic and turning over to him the complete control of the Roman state.

Although Augustus’s reign is generally viewed as a just one, with the growing stability of the empire listed as one of his greatest achievements, the seeds of what would evolve into decades of capricious, corrupt and vengeful rulers were planted with the demise of the Republic. In 14 A.D, Augustus died and Tiberius Claudius Nero, commonly referred to as Tiberius, came to power. For twentythree years, until his death in 37 A.D, Roman citizens and political leaders were on the receiving end of Tiberius’s reign that was marked by seemingly capricious assassinations, poisonings, and banishments. In 26 A.D, Tiberius retired to the island of Capri, where he is said to have lived a life of complete depravity and debauchery, effectively leaving Rome in the hands of the praetorian prefect Sejanus, a man whose sole vision was to become emperor at all costs. But the brutality and corruption of Sejanus was even too much for Tiberius to ignore, and in 31 A.D he was arrested and executed.

With Tiberius’s death, rumored to have come from the hands of his praetorian prefect Macro, his nephew Caligula took over, and thus began a reign marked by what many believe was the apex of Roman madness. Shortly after becoming emperor, Caligula suffered what doctors at the time referred to as a “brain fever.” He survived, but his mental acuity suffered irreparable damage. For the remainder of his reign he believed himself to be immortal, was known widely to be having incestuous relationships with his sisters (often with his wife in attendance). His acts of cruelty to opponents, common citizens and criminals were unprecedented in Roman history. After only five years in his reign, an officer of the praetorians, or imperial guard, with the help of several colleagues, assassinated him. In the melee that followed, Claudius was found, literally hiding behind some curtains. The praetorians guards dragged the fifty-year-old, stuttering and physically deformed uncle of Caligula to their camp, where they named him emperor.

I, Claudius covers the period of the Roman Empire that saw the end of the Republic and an increased concentration of power in the hands of the emperor, thus leading to an endless number of conspiracies and political intrigues among the Roman elite. Each successive emperor seemed to outdo the previous in capriciousness and terror, with the innocent bystanders and citizens suffering the most. It also covers a period in which Rome was intent on consolidating, and increasing, its hold on outlying territories, particularly Germany. Claudius’s descriptions of the Germans in particular paint an unflattering picture of barbarity.

Graves wrote I, Claudius shortly after the tremendous and hedonistic excesses of the 1920s had imploded with the Great Depression and left the Western industrialized world in economic collapse. By 1934, there was also a growing anxiety with respect to Germany’s intentions and Italy’s growing fascist threat. Europe seemed to be precariously balanced between hyper-anxiety that fueled the 1920s and the hyper-aggression that would erupt with World War II. Europeans watched helplessly as the influence of fascists and Nazis grew. The severe prejudice against the German race as a result of World War I was also fueled by Hitler’s rise to power. The rest of the Western world felt helpless as Europe seemed fated to repeat the debacle of World War I. As a result Western society seemed to be suffering from a severe moral angst that led to several unanswered questions: How can an individual survive in such a seemingly unresponsive and amoral world? What can the average person do to positively contribute to such chaos? Is it possible for a society to move forward without repeating its destructive past? These questions were questions of life and death for millions of Europeans in 1934, and by addressing these issues through the eyes of a seemingly powerless, and even inept, individual, and by using an ancient time and world as the backdrop, Graves was able to throw light on the dark questions that the readers of 1934 in Great Britain and the United States may have been asking themselves.

Graves was not alone in using the Roman Empire as a backdrop for epic stories at this time. In 1934, the novelist Jack Lindsay published Rome for Sale and Caesar is Dead, and within a couple years several more would appear, including Phyllis Bentley’s Freedom Farewell in 1936, Leslie Mitchell’s Spartacus in 1937, and Naomi Mitchison’s The Blood of the Martyrs in 1939. Rome, with its fascist-like praetorian guards and regalia, proved to be a good backdrop to explore issues of the political tyranny and excesses that were spreading across Europe. Even more important, I, Claudius covers the period of Roman history that followed the demise of the more democratic principles of the Republic. Democracy across Europe was on the defensive in 1934; Tiberius and, possibly, Caligulalike rulers were threatening Western civilization.

ForeshadowingI, Claudius is narrated by Claudius during the final years of his life. Throughout his narration, Claudius hints at events that are yet to come, oftentimes with the help of sibyls, oracles or other methods of divination. His visit to the Sybil of Cumae, for instance, foretells of his becoming emperor, and a dream that his slave Briseis has describes how his succession would take place.

Historical Novel
As a novel relating a particular period in the history of the Roman Empire, I, Claudius relies on certain, verifiable historical facts. The characters he describes all existed in the chronology and relationships that he lays out. Graves seldom fudges dates or the details of significant events, such as the deaths of major Roman figures. However, much of I, Claudius is based purely on the author’s power of speculation and imagination, and as such should be considered for what it is: a fictional account of the reign of three Roman emperors. However, the purpose of historical fiction is not to portray the “facts” of a particular historical time or event as would a scholarly study; rather, its purpose is to portray the general “truth” of the times in the hopes of providing insights in the readers’ contemporary times. A good historical novel reveals universal truths about other people and cultures, and transports us to another historical time through good storytelling, but not through ponderous academic research.

Narrative Objectivity
While Claudius, by the nature of his own existence as a member of the imperial family, cannot but help to be involved in many of the plots and subplots unfolding around him, he nevertheless consciously strives to provide his reader with an objective view of events. His early speculation of Livia’s involvement in various deaths is eventually proven true, establishing his credibility as a narrator, and rarely do his other speculative thoughts fail on the grounds of his own biases and subjectivity. Claudius is an historian. As such, he should not lift one historical character above another in the eyes of his eventual readers, but rather reveal the truth as he sees it. This narrative technique is one of the most remarkable characteristics of I, Claudius, and Claudius himself, as depicted through his narration, is one of Graves’s most ingenious inventions and certainly one of literature’s most memorable. Claudius—introduced to his readers as “‘Claudius the Idiot,’ or ‘That Claudius,’ or ‘Claudius the Stammerer’”—comes across as a remarkably selfdeprecating individual. A stuttering, limping, bumbling fool, he is seemingly out of favor with Rome’s power structure. But the course of his narration proves him to be an insightful and brilliant figure with a sharp intellect and flawless memory, and as a result, he is able to survive the caprices of Augustus, Tiberius, and Caligula before being named emperor himself.

Again in his letter to T. E. Lawrence, Graves declares about I, Claudius: "The writing is definitely not high-pitched but the sort of writing to be expected from the man we know Claudius was. It is a very modest book, and full of anecdotes because people like anecdotes." Graves works at two levels in his novel. One is the popular level; nearly every critic takes pains to point out that Graves has said that I, Claudius was meant to be a best-seller. Yet, Graves also is a conscientious writer who chose the subject of the novel because it interested him. Thus, I, Claudius is not just a sensational account of Roman depravity but an attempt to be honest with readers and produce a work suited to "the man we know Claudius was." On the second level — "literary" as opposed to "popular" — Graves is a very self-conscious artist who carefully creates characters, moods, and even a narrative pace suited to the characters, such as a slow one for Tiberius but a lively one for Caligula.

I, Claudius and the sequel Claudius the God form a continuous narrative of Emperor Claudius's life and times. Graves studied hard before writing these books. As early as 1929, he had been interested in Ancient Rome's Emperor Claudius, and he already had a generalized knowledge of the period in which 1, Claudius is set. Once he had decided to write the novel, Graves carefully researched Claudius's era, steeping himself not only in the historical events, such as wars and assassinations, but in the everyday life of Roman society. He wanted the background of the novel to seem real to his readers by presenting an accurate account of how the Romans lived.

The Roman society of I, Claudius is disintegrating. The once proudly free Roman people have surrendered their political liberties to first Emperor Augustus Caesar and then to his successors. Absolute power is wielded mercilessly by the emperors and their families. Livia, the wife of Augustus, murders and brutalizes family members, friends, and enemies in order to preserve her own political power and to secure power for her favorites. Her husband turns a blind eye to her activities, and she manages to destroy nearly every sympathetic character in the novel, leaving only madmen and fools to rule after Augustus' death. Claudius covers his own good nature and quick mind by pretending to be a fool. In a society in which political power rests with one man, the emperor, any good leader or honest person is a threat to the emperor; if the public admires the good deeds of a royal subject, the emperor may feel threatened, and the good subject must be exiled or executed. Those who might have been great leaders or philanthropists are forced to be sycophants who must engage in petty politics in order to survive. The learned Claudius, potentially a great historian, must abase himself by playing the fool in order to escape the murderous rampages of his grandmother Livia and Emperor Caligula, as well as other evil schemers.

The world of I, Claudius is a cruel one. Roman citizens become progressively more degenerate as the novel advances. Their best and brightest fellow citizens succumb to murder. Without ethical leadership and without political responsibilities, a once great people indulge in debauchery, superstition, and laziness. I, Claudius is in part a presentation of what may happen when a free people surrender their liberties in exchange for political stability. Claudius tries to reverse history — to recreate the Roman Republic — but no one, not even an emperor, can restore liberty to people who do not want it.

1934: After years of unprecedented economic growth in the 1920s, the United States suffers from the stock market crash of 1929, leading to the Great Depression.

Today: After years of economic growth and prosperity in the 1990s, stemming from the unprecedented growth of the hi-tech industry, the United States enters into their greatest recession since the Great Depression.

1934: Europe faces the rise of anti-democratic movements in Germany, Italy and Spain. Fascism and National Socialism are threatening the stability of Europe and, by extension, of the world.

Today: Although Europe has experienced the spread of democracy since the fall of communism in the 1980s and 1990s, the region faces increased threats of terrorism from Islamic extremists and Russian secessionists.

1934: Labor unions are still struggling to make inroads into the private sector. As a result, workers do not have basic benefits such as guaranteed wages, overtime pay, or health insurance.

Today: Although labor unions made huge advances following World War II and helped union and non-union workers achieve basic rights, since the 1980s unions have lost political ground, and the wages and rights of many United States workers are being threatened.

1934: Germany is in the early stages of trying to extend its influence across Europe and around the world. Hitler makes no pretence in his desire to spread the ideology of National Socialism around the world.

Today: While generally speaking there are no military powers that are explicitly trying to take over the world, in the eyes of many the world over, particularly in the eyes of many observers in the Middle East, the United States, with its invasion of Iraq, is trying to extend its influence and ideology across the globe.

1934: Classical education, especially among the upper classes, is very much in vogue in colleges and universities, both in the United States and in Great Britain. Most students in private schools must learn Latin and Greek, and most students are well versed in the Greek and Roman classics and history.

Today: With some notable exceptions, most students are not required by colleges or universities to study foreign languages or the classics. Classical studies, including the study of Greek and Latin, has been relegated to small academic departments, and the vast majority of students graduate with very little knowledge of the classics or classical languages.

Novels about Ancient Rome had become a staple of popular literature by the time I, Claudius was written. The success of Edward Bulwer-Lytton's potboiler The Last Days of Pompeii in 1834 inspired many imitations. Bulwer-Lytton's novel features an entirely fanciful religious cult and a sensationally decadent society. I, Claudius follows the pattern by featuring superstition and a corrupt society, but defies convention by emphasizing realistic portrayals of Ancient Rome.

In 1937, Alexander Korda began filming a motion picture version of I, Claudius. It featured Charles Laughton as Claudius. The screenplay was by Carl Zuckmayer, a German, and was translated into English by June Head. Graves was dismayed by Zuckmayer's treatment and rewrote the screenplay himself. The director Josef von Sternberg then undertook to redo the screenplays. Although some scenes were filmed at Denham Studios, the project bogged down in confusion. Korda hoped to revive the motion picture in 1938 with someone besides Laugh ton in the lead, but his hopes came to nothing. In the 1950s, Vincent Korda, brother of Alexander, tried to put together a new film version of I, Claudius, this time starring Alec Guinness, but the plans failed.

In 1976, the British Broadcasting Corporation showed the limited series I, Claudius. This television version combined the novels I, Claudius and Claudius the God in a screenplay by Jack Pulman. The critically acclaimed series was a big hit in Great Britain, as it was later in the United States, when shown by the Public Broadcasting System. This popular television series is one of the best translations ever made of a literary work to the television screen.

The most comprehensive Web site on Robert Graves can be found at http://www .robertgraves.org/ (accessed November 24, 2004) with links to many data bases and material related to Graves’s scholarship, including Gravesiana: the Journal of the Robert Graves Society and archived audio recordings of the writer.

Academy of American Poets houses a Robert Graves page at http://www.poets.org/poets/ poets.cfm?prmID=197 (accessed November 24, 2004) with audio recordings and links to other sites.

Blackstone Audiobooks released an unabridged audio recording of I, Claudius in 1994 that is available both through bookstores and online as a digital download.

One of the most critically acclaimed television series of all time, Masterpiece Theater’s I, Claudius, starring Derek Jacobi as Claudius, and also staring John Hurt and Patrick Stewart, is available both in DVD and VHS format. Included in the DVD format is the 1965 television production, The Epic That Never Was, a documentary of director Josef von Sternberg’s failed 1937 filming of Graves’s book.

Sources Aaron, Daniel, “What Can You Learn from a Historical Novel?” in American Heritage, Vol. 43, No. 6, October 1992, pp. 55–56.

Blowen, Michael, “How the Movie Sells the Book,” in Boston Globe, January 12, 1986, Sec. B, p. 1.

Buckman, Peter, and William Fifield, “The Art of Poetry XI: Robert Graves,” in Conversations with Robert Graves, edited by Frank. L. Kersnowski, University of Mississippi Press, 1989, p. 100.

Burton, Philip, “The Values of a Classical Education: Satirical Elements in Robert Graves’s Claudius Novels,” in Review of English Studies, Vol. 46, No. 182, May 1995, pp. 191–218.

Cavendish, Richard, “Historical Novels,” in History Today, Vol. 53, No. 5, May 2003, p. 88.

Fleming, Thomas, “How Real History Fits into the Historical Novel,” in the Writer, Vol. 111, No. 3, March 1998, pp. 7, 11.

Graves, Richard Percival, “Book Four: Robert Graves and Laura Riding in Majorca, 1929–1936,” in Robert Graves: The Years with Laura, 1926–1940, Viking, 1990, pp. 125–244.

Hopkins, Chris, “Robert Graves and the Historical Novel in the 1930s,” in New Perspectives on Robert Graves, edited by Patrick J. Quinn, Susquehanna University Press, 1999, pp. 128–35.

McCarthy, Mary, Review of I, Claudius, in The Nation & Atheneum, June 13, 1934, quoted in Snipes, Katherine, “Historical Novels: On Claudius” in Robert Graves, Ungar Publishing Company, 1979, p. 180.

Snipes, Katherine, “Historical Novels: On Claudius,” in Robert Graves, Ungar Publishing Company, 1979, pp. 173–88.

Further Reading
Gibbon, Edward, and David Womersley, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, abridged ed., Penguin, 2001. First completed in 1788, Gibbon’s classic study of the Roman empire continues to be considered one of the major works on the subject. Womersley’s abridgement keeps the major themes and style of the original.

Graves, Richard Percival, Robert Graves: The Years with Laura, 1926–1940, Viking, 1990. The second of a three-volume biography of Graves by his nephew, The Years with Laura covers the period in which I, Claudius was written.

Graves, Robert, Claudius the God: And His Wife Messalina, 1940, reprint, Vintage, 1989. Picking up where I, Claudius left off, Claudius the God: And His Wife Messalina covers the 13-year reign of Claudius as emperor of Rome.

Seymour, Miranda, Robert Graves: Life on the Edge, Doubleday, 1995. One of the most insightful biographies of Graves available, Seymour’s work profited from the unprecedented cooperation she received from Graves’s widow and son.

Seymour-Smith, Martin, Robert Graves: His Life and Work, rev. ed., Bloomsbury, 1995. This 1995 edition, updated from its original 1983 edition on the occasion of the centennial of Grave’s birth, is considered among the finest of Grave’s biographies, even if it is also considered one of the most opinionated.