Historical Context

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The Renaissance

The Renaissance marked a profound transformation, shifting focus from divine realms towards humanity itself. Emerging in the aftermath of the devastating Black Death that ravaged Europe between 1347 and 1377, this era witnessed a dramatic shift in the social and economic landscape. With nearly a third of the population lost, those who survived found themselves earning higher wages and quickly stepping into the economic void. This period ignited a burgeoning interest in classical literature, languages, and philosophy, fueling the intellectual fervor of the Renaissance, known as Humanism. This movement elevated mankind to new heights of dignity and intellectual prominence, challenging the Church's longstanding authority. Humanists endeavored to harmonize pagan classical philosophy with Christian, Jewish, and gnostic doctrines, advancing the radical idea that redemption could be attained through faith alone, independent of divine grace. This evolution paralleled increasing awareness and unease regarding the clergy's pervasive corruption. The practice of selling indulgences faced scrutiny from a nascent, somewhat educated middle class that diverged from the ruling elite's traditional beliefs. Knowledge and ideas spread more rapidly thanks to the invention of the printing press (1457–1458) and the gradual urbanization of society.

Despite the Church's grip on political, social, and economic power, the seeds of the Protestant Reformation began to challenge its theology, paving the way for a new branch of Christianity. The Counter-Reformation attempted to refine Church protocols and curb corruption, yet the rift between competing models of individual salvation led to the rise of Protestant denominations. In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Church sanctioned persecution of witches and launched the Spanish Inquisition, yet Europe remained divided along religious lines. Nations such as England vacillated between Catholicism and Protestantism until leaders stabilized society and established a national religion or embraced religious tolerance. Amidst this social and philosophical upheaval, a new style of critical thinking paved the way for remarkable scientific breakthroughs. With newfound respect for individual achievement and a scientific revolution promoting open inquiry, wealth and intellect converged to produce revolutionary insights by luminaries like Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton. Art flourished with the application of the golden mean in architecture, the use of visual perspective in painting and drawing, and the lifelike depiction of musculature in sculpture.

In politics, Niccolo Machiavelli delved into human psychology, crafting a theory on power that laid the foundation for modern political realism. Theatrically, playwrights like Shakespeare offered profound psychological explorations of the human mind in crisis. In these and myriad other ways, the Renaissance not only rediscovered but surpassed the splendors of classical Greece and Rome.

Italian City-States

The roots of Humanism took hold in the bustling Italian city-states of the fourteenth century, ignited by Francesco Petrarch's dedication to studying Latin and later Greek, as he sought out the lost manuscripts of ancient Rome and Greece. These city-states offered fertile ground for new ideologies, being less tethered to Scholasticism compared to other European urban centers. While universities elsewhere focused on theology, the Italian city-states emphasized law and medicine. Across Europe, society relied on clergy-led universities to instill Christian behavior, morality, and doctrine in the sons of the elite, prepping them for courtly positions. However, in the self-governing locales of Florence and Venice or those managed by influential families like the Medicis, education centered on language and writing for governance and commerce.

Italy's status as a trade hub necessitated that merchants grasp both law and the diverse cultures of visiting traders. Florence, lacking a university until 1321, nurtured its elite through trade schools that annually contracted teachers for specific curricula. This educational flexibility allowed city-states to swiftly embrace humanist thinking, unencumbered by a theological...

(This entire section contains 1138 words.)

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or philosophical faculty pushing a singular doctrine. Merchant culture demanded students develop an ethical compass for business success, while city-state schools imparted political and rhetorical skills necessary for republican governance and effective household leadership.

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 ushered a wave of Greek scholars into Italy, where they found roles educating the progeny of affluent merchants. This influx sparked renewed interest in the Greek language and literature, contributing richly to humanist discourse.

The Reformation

The Reformation emerged as a fervent response to the rampant corruption embedded within the Roman Catholic Church, which had taken to selling "indulgences." These were not just mere slips of paper; they were deceitful promises, offering eternal absolution for earthly sins to the highest bidder. At the helm of this theological upheaval stood Martin Luther, who, in a bold act of defiance in 1517, nailed his ninety-five theses to the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg. These were scathing criticisms that laid bare the Church's transgressions. Excommunication swiftly followed, yet Luther's radical vision of personal spiritual discovery through scripture and faith—bypassing the need for ecclesiastical intervention—resonated powerfully with the burgeoning middle class.

The scholarly humanists, initially intrigued by the movement, eventually recoiled, perceiving it as a direct assault on the very institution of the Church, rather than merely its corrupt practices. Nonetheless, the Reformation triumphed, spawning a new branch of Christianity: Protestantism. As the medieval fiefdoms faded, nations began to crystallize. Leaders like King Henry VIII of England recognized in the Reformation a chance to challenge the Church's immense sway, which not only enriched itself through life-cycle services—from baptism to burial—but also exerted a spiritual dominion that could eclipse regal authority through the fearsome threat of excommunication.

The Reformation cast doubt on the legitimacy of such power, highlighting the pervasive corruption among clergy, reaching as high as the Vatican. Seizing the moment, King Henry VIII capitalized on the Church's diminished grip, dissolving many affluent monasteries in 1538 and diverting their wealth to his own treasury. Further defying Papal dominance, his Act of Supremacy in 1534 declared his sovereignty over the Church in England, thus reshaping the religious landscape.

Printing

In the realm of innovation, Johannes Gutenberg, the German pioneer of the movable type printing press, crafted a monumental 1,282-page Latin Bible between 1453 and 1455. By 1465, the art of printing had journeyed to Italy, where two German printers established their enterprise. They printed a Latin grammar and a work by Cicero, alongside popular devotional texts and hagiographies. As the fifteenth century unfolded, forgotten classical manuscripts began to surface, thanks to the diligent efforts of Petrarch, Boccaccio, Salutati, and others.

The swift spread of printing presses across major urban centers sparked a lucrative industry, significantly lowering book costs. Students now had the luxury of owning their own Latin grammar books and a few essential texts, liberating them from the tedious task of manually copying lessons recited by teachers. The burgeoning professionalism in printing ensured greater accuracy in published works. Texts, rigorously revised by humanist scholars, were produced in large volumes, reducing variations.

The revolution in printing left an indelible mark on Renaissance culture. Ideas now traversed rapidly through a society experiencing an exponential surge in literacy, as educational institutions flourished and the availability of new books enhanced their effectiveness.

Literary Style

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Love of Language

As the Renaissance humanists unearthed forgotten treasures of classical manuscripts and spread them far and wide through the marvel of the printing press, they cultivated a refined appreciation for those ancient authors who wielded Latin with the utmost grace. In their diligent comparisons of various editions of the same texts, they uncovered transcription errors and set the stage for the emergence of philology—an earnest devotion to the art and science of language. This passion was driven by the humanists' quest to refine their translations of ancient writings and to craft insightful commentaries on these newly resurrected works. Emulating the eloquence of Roman luminaries like Cicero and Caesar, they aspired to articulate their thoughts in the most sophisticated Latin, supplanting the more rigid scholastic Latin grammar of medieval texts. Philology became a cornerstone of the humanist movement, sparking a fervent interest in the historical and contextual authenticity of ancient texts. Indeed, it was the humanists who pioneered the notion of textual criticism, establishing philology as a vital tool for verifying the chronicles of historical events and ideologies.

Oratory

The art of rhetoric and the craft of oratory—performed in Latin—were esteemed skills among the humanists. They harbored disdain for the scholastic method of disputation, which they saw as mere displays of hollow knowledge rather than true insight or virtue. This method involved scouring texts to extract statements supporting a predetermined opinion, often stripping them of context. Scholastic teaching of Latin and rhetoric relied heavily on rote memorization, with harsh discipline meted out for poor performance. Pupils were taught to mimic classical Latin authors without grasping the true meaning of the words they recited. In stark contrast, humanists desired their students to embrace Cicero’s triad of oratorical duties: to educate, to delight, and to stir emotions. For them, oration was not just a recitation but a thoughtful address tailored to both the audience and the material. Moreover, they aspired for students to gain deep understanding, enabling them to speak with conviction and authority. This approach adhered to the maxim, "Grasp the subject, the words will follow," guiding students towards a genuine comprehension of their subjects, thus empowering them to make sound decisions and become virtuous citizens. This philosophy aligned with another of Cicero’s principles, which advised students not to chase "absolute truth" but rather to nurture their own virtue, intertwining oratory instruction with character development.

Erasmus crafted numerous works to aid students in mastering Latin, one being his Adages, a collection of thousands of elegantly phrased Latin maxims. His Formulas for Friendly Conversation (published in 1518) was designed to help students engage in dialogue rather than merely echo Latin expressions. Ultimately, advanced Latin students aimed to perfect "oratorical abundance" or copia—the skill to speak expansively on a subject, interweaving a tapestry of pertinent quotes and choosing adages apt for the occasion. Shakespeare’s Hamlet alludes to this talent when he advises a troupe of actors to "suit the action to the word, the word to the action." Such echoes of humanist oratorial ethos testify to the profound influence their principles had, reaching even public schools like the one young Shakespeare attended in Stratford-upon-Avon during the 16th century.

Biography

The humanists' fascination with biography and autobiography traces back to the revered progenitor of Humanism, the Italian poet and scholar Francesco Petrarch. Petrarch mourned the shortcomings of his own era, idealizing the virtues of classical Roman times and its people. He immersed himself in the original Latin works of ancient Roman authors, driven by an unyielding quest to reconstruct a society he believed far superior to 14th-century Italy. When he stumbled upon personal letters penned by his cherished classical author, Cicero, he eagerly delved into them, striving to understand the man and the epoch that shaped him. Petrarch even penned fictitious letters to his favorite Roman writers, showering praise on the classical age and lamenting the deficiencies of his own. His creation of Of Illustrious Men (De viris illustribus) in 1338—a series of twenty-four biographies—set a benchmark for classical scholarship, offering profound insights into human conduct.

His contemporary, Boccaccio, mirrored this endeavor with a complementary work chronicling the lives of over a hundred women, titled Famous Women (De mulieribus claris) in 1362. Neither Petrarch nor Boccaccio could have foreseen how their passion for classical Rome and Greece would ignite a lasting legacy, sparking a flourishing interest in the biographical genre that would captivate audiences for centuries to come.

Movement Variations

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The Enlightenment Era

A chorus of historians contends that the humanist fervor ignited during the Renaissance reached its zenith in the brilliant Enlightenment of the eighteenth century, also known as the Age of Reason. This was a time when the torch of science and rational thought lit up not only the minds of intellectuals and humanist scholars of the Renaissance but also the burgeoning literate middle class, hungry for the knowledge contained within books. The thinkers and philosophers of this period wielded their influence to champion human reason as paramount, challenging the dogma of superstitious rituals that religion imposed upon behavior. Some Enlightenment luminaries openly embraced atheism, while others opted to distance themselves from organized religion, embracing the notion of an unknowable, supreme entity. A cadre of French intellectuals, the philosophes, featuring luminaries like Denis Diderot, Charles Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Voltaire, embarked on the monumental endeavor of crafting an Encyclopédie (1751–1780), a compendium of human knowledge methodically organized. Notably absent was any deference to religion, which they dismissed as mere superstition. Voltaire, ever provocative, suggested in one essay the radical idea of religious tolerance: if Socrates, Plato, and Solon could not be barred from heaven, how could men of varied faiths be excluded? The contributors to this daring encyclopedia faced imprisonment for their heretical views, yet it stood firm as a testament to the belief in humanity's fundamental supremacy.

The Enlightenment's intellectuals were captivated by the mysteries of how humans come to know and, as religion's grip on morality loosened, how they discern what is right. David Hume penned works on human sentiment as the bedrock of ethical behavior, arguing that since God was but an idea, his existence was questionable. Jeremy Bentham introduced the pleasure principle, suggesting ethical decisions arise from the pursuit of pleasure over pain, ultimately serving the common good. In Germany, Immanuel Kant proposed a moral compass based on a "golden rule," asserting that an act is moral if it could be universally applied, thus rooting morality in human cognition rather than divine decree. Across the Atlantic, Thomas Paine condemned religion for inciting humanity's darkest deeds, stating, “The most detestable wickedness, the most horrid cruelties, and the greatest miseries that have afflicted the human race, have had their origin in this thing called revelation, or revealed religion.” The Enlightenment carried the torch of Humanism further, challenging and at times eschewing organized religion altogether. This era marked the ascendancy of intellect over religious belief, extolling earthly virtues for the joy they bring in this life. It sowed seeds for the humanistic endeavors of the next century, poised towards social reform and awareness.

Modern Secular Humanism

The vigorous social reformist currents of the nineteenth century flowed from the Renaissance and Enlightenment's humanistic ideals. The notion of the Great Chain of Being, positioning humanity at its apex, justified imperialistic endeavors to "civilize" distant lands while simultaneously nurturing a burgeoning sense of social duty. This manifested in improved living and working conditions for those dwelling in "quiet desperation" (Thoreau, 1854). Robert Green Ingersoll articulated this emerging responsibility in "A Humanist Credo," capturing the spirit of the age:

We are satisfied that there can be but little liberty on earth while men worship a tyrant in heaven. We do not expect to accomplish everything in our day; but we want to do what good we can, and to render all the service possible in the holy cause of human progress. We know that doing away with gods and supernatural persons and powers is not an end. It is a means to an end—the real end being the happiness of man.

In the aftermath of the decline of imperialism, humanist ideology underwent a remarkable transformation. It shifted its focus from mere social reform to a broader embrace of humanitarianism, a perspective that came to define the intellectual landscape of the twentieth century. Humanist thinker Corliss Lamont eloquently described Humanism as “A philosophy of joyous service for the greater good of all humanity in this natural world and advocating the methods of reason, science, and democracy.”

The impact of this evolved ideology was profound, with numerous manifestos penned and endorsed by prominent scholars, scientists, and authors. These manifestos championed a vision of Humanism that distanced itself from organized religion, placing the onus on humanity to realize its full potential. Among the ideals championed were the opposition to nuclear arms, the support for reproductive choice, the encouragement of organ donation post-mortem, and the acceptance of euthanasia in certain situations.

Ethical Humanism, as it came to be known, did not prescribe a rigid set of beliefs but rather advocated for situational ethics—making moral choices based on the context while adhering to core humanist values. These values celebrated human dignity, the pursuit of knowledge through science and technology, personal freedom, and the preservation of nature, deliberately setting aside religious myths to focus on our earthly existence. Paul Kurtz, in his influential Humanist Manifesto I and II, asserted that “Ethics is autonomous and situational, needing no theological or ideological sanction. Ethics stem from human interest and need . . . we strive for the good life here and now.”

Within this philosophical framework, secular humanists emerge as zealous adherents to Humanist principles, distinct from religious humanists like the Quakers. The latter, while devoted to humanitarian efforts as a core aspect of their faith, refuse to be shackled by rituals, costumes, and dogmas. Throughout history, numerous luminaries have embraced Humanism or Secular Humanism as their guiding philosophy. This illustrious group includes notable figures such as the American lawyer and atheist Clarence Darrow; German-born psychoanalyst Eric Fromm; British biologist and Aldous Huxley's grandson, Julian Sorrell Huxley; eminent pacifist and philosopher Bertrand Russell; scientist and Sci-Fi maestro Isaac Asimov; French existentialist Jean Paul Sartre; the visionary scientist Carl Sagan; German-born humanitarian Albert Schweitzer; philosopher George Santayana from Spain; Chinese-born writer Lin Yutang; and the distinguished philosopher Corliss Lamont, to name but a few.

As the twenty-first century unfolds, humanists face new challenges that demand their attention and action. This includes figures like philosopher Paul Kurtz, feminist historian Riane Eisler, social journalist Barbara Ehrenreich, feminist pioneer Betty Friedan, celebrated author Alice Walker, science fiction luminary Kurt Vonnegut, and former United Nations secretary-general Kofi Annan. Together, they grapple with the complexities of globalization and the pressing need for ecological stewardship.

Compare and Contrast

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1100–1400: The devout monks and nuns, paragons of Christian faith, withdraw into serene seclusion, dedicating their lives to tranquil devotion, untouched by worldly distractions.

1450–1600: With newfound insight, spiritual men embrace the notion that holiness can flourish amidst earthly endeavors. Thus, many erudite humanists, driven by profound faith, passionately commit themselves to elevating human society.

Today: Altruistic men and women of faith pour their efforts into advancing the welfare of the disadvantaged, alongside humanists who share this noble mission.

1100–1400: In Western realms, Christianity permeates daily existence. Those of differing religions often face marginalization, branded as outsiders or unbelievers, subject to persecution.

1450–1600: As Christianity divides into Catholic and Protestant factions, inter-religious persecution persists, now within these new sects. Furthermore, oppression of Jews, Muslims, and those outside these branches remains widespread.

Today: A liberal society treasures religious tolerance. Yet, pockets of the world persist in persecuting followers of differing faiths, presenting a formidable challenge for the twenty-first century.

1100–1400: Both learned scholars and the clergy uphold the doctrines of Christianity as articulated by the Catholic Church.

1450–1600: Humanist thinkers and clergy, harboring doubts about certain Catholic doctrines, champion the radical idea that individuals can find divine truth independently. Such views are labeled heretical.

Today: Secular humanist scholars reject any validation of religious belief, with Secular Humanism itself embodying a belief in the inherent worth of humanity.

Representative Works

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Adages

First unveiled in 1500 by the illustrious Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Adages (Adagia) initially gathered an impressive array of over three thousand proverbs crafted by the sages of Greek and Roman times. As the years passed, Erasmus enriched this collection, offering expanded editions in 1508 and 1515. This expansion mirrored the very essence of the Adages, reflecting Erasmus's belief in the opulence (copia) found in selecting just the right adages to elevate one's speech. In its introduction, Erasmus provides a roadmap for polishing these verbal jewels, using them to add brilliance to one's discourse. He suggests, “To deftly and aptly weave adages into speech is to illuminate language with the ancient wisdom's sparkle, delight with rhetorical art, and charm with witticisms.” This tome emerged as a beacon of Renaissance wisdom, preserving ancient insights while guiding orators in the craft of eloquence.

Book of the Courtier

Crafted in 1528 by the distinguished Italian knight and diplomat Baldassare Castiglione, the Book of the Courtier (Il Cortegiano) paints a vivid portrait of the ideal gentleman and lady. This literary masterpiece unfolds through a lively dialogue among courtiers, who gracefully unravel the art of poise and conduct. Under the guidance of the Duchess of Urbina, these courtiers outline the perfect gentleman's multifaceted talents—from the thrill of the hunt to the elegance of music and the art of tennis—all while artfully eschewing envy. The depiction of the perfect gentlewoman is equally meticulous. Here, appearances matter yet must seem effortless, avoiding the excesses of over-grooming and heavy makeup. At the core of this grace is “a certain recklessness,” or sprezzatura, embodying the ability to perform actions gracefully without apparent effort. Eloquence in both speech and writing is paramount, sparking a spirited discussion on rhetorical devices and the necessity of discarding outdated expressions. The book's final chapter delves into the intricate dance of courtly love. Book of the Courtier quickly acquired international acclaim, translated for courts far and wide, from Europe to Japan.

Book of Elegances, or Elegances of the Latin Language

Embarking on this linguistic journey around 1435, Lorenzo Valla, an esteemed Italian humanist and philosopher, unveiled the Book of Elegances in 1444. This anthology, showcasing three thousand exemplary Latin phrases, became a foundational text for students eager to master Latin philology across Europe. Within a century, this formidable and costly work had graced the presses in no fewer than sixty editions.

Familiar Letters

Over the decades, Francesco Petrarch penned an extraordinary series of letters, addressing luminaries from the classical world like Cicero, whose oratorical skills he admired, and Homer, along with his imitator, the gifted Virgil, and the philosopher Socrates. Petrarch engaged these iconic figures as if they were living confidants, sharing insights and reflections on his critics. Among these letters lies "To Posterity," a fascinating early form of informal autobiography where Petrarch reflects on his life, stating: “I possessed a well-balanced rather than a keen intellect, one prone to all kinds of good and wholesome study, but especially inclined to moral philosophy and the art of poetry.” He also reached out to contemporaries like Giovanni Boccaccio, a cherished friend, and Tomasso de Messina, a philosophical adversary, to whom Petrarch expressed his disdain for Aristotelian logic, favoring Plato’s works instead.

Oration on the Dignity of Man

In the year 1486, after seven rigorous years of classical study across Europe, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola began formulating a grand vision of a universal religion, one that harmonized the core truths of major faiths. His ambitious vision took shape in the form of nine hundred theses exploring diverse themes, which he intended to debate with scholars in Rome. However, accusations of heresy by the Church forced him to seek refuge in France. The introductory oration to these theses, later recognized as Oration on the Dignity of Man (published posthumously in 1496), eloquently asserted that humanity is not bound by nature’s laws, empowered instead by free will to define its own essence and boundaries. It acclaimed mankind as the universe's focal point, with Pico della Mirandola declaring, “nothing in the world can be found that is more worthy of admiration than man.” Although not a pure humanist—adhering to some scholastic principles—his work invigorated humanist thought, uniting Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian, and Arabic philosophies to celebrate human intellectual liberty and dignity.

Utopia

During an extended diplomatic mission in Bruges, Sir Thomas More composed Utopia, which found its way into print in 1516. This narrative unveils the tale of a fantastical island named No Place (Utopia), where virtue, reason, and charity reign supreme. The corrosive vices of greed and envy have been banished by mandating uniform attire and a ten-year cycle of home exchanges. More's allegorical vision of England drew from classics such as Plato’s Republic, along with other historical and biblical inspirations. Utopia stands as a triumphant ode to human potential, envisioning a world where virtue and joy flourish—an enduring cornerstone of humanist literature.

Bibliography and Further Reading

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Sources

Baier, Annette, Postures of the Mind, University of Minnesota Press, 1984, pp. 147, 293.

Dresden, S., Humanism in the Renaissance, translated by Margaret King, World University Library, 1968, p. 11.

Edwords, Fredrick, “The Humanist Philosophy in Perspective,” in the Humanist, American Humanist Association, January–February 1984.

Fowler, Jeaneane, Humanism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, 1999, p. 33.

Ingersoll, Robert Green, “A Humanist Credo,” in Humanist Anthology from Confucius to Attenborough, edited by Margaret Knight, Prometheus Books, 1995, pp. 117.

Kurtz, Paul, Humanist Manifesto I and II, Prometheus Books, 1973.

Lamont, Corliss, The Philosophy of Humanism, 7th ed., Continuum Publishing Company, 1990, pp. 12, 42.

Paine, Thomas, “Revealed Religion and Morality,” in Humanist Anthology from Confucius to Attenborough, edited by Margaret Knight, Prometheus Books, 1995, p. 75.

Radest, Howard B., The Devil and Secular Humanism: The Children of the Enlightenment, Praeger, 1990, p. 31.

Rorty, Richard, Philosophy and Social Hope, Penguin Putnam, 1999.

Werner, Michael, “Humanism and Beyond the Truth,” in Humanism Today, Vol. 13: Beyond Reason?: Essays from the Humanist Institute, North American Council for Humanism, 1999.

Further Reading

Ackroyd, Peter, The Life of Thomas More, Random House, 1999. Ackroyd provides a balanced biography of Sir Thomas More that successfully places the man in his historical context and reveals the source of his moral courage as well as his basic humanity.

Davies, Tony, Humanism, Routledge, 1997. This work is an overview of the historical context of Humanism from the Renaissance to modern times. Hale, John, The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance, Simon & Schuster, 1993. Hale offers an historical account of the transformation of Europe that occurred between 1450 and 1620 in art, literature, politics, and culture.

Knight, Margaret, Humanist Anthology from Confucius to Attenborough, Prometheus Books, 1995. Knight’s text is a compilation of short pieces, sometimes excerpted from larger works, by well-known humanists.

Kraye, Jill, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism, Cambridge University Press, 1996. Kraye’s book is a compilation of scholarly articles on aspects of Humanism, from rhetoric and philology to the humanist’s relationship to art and science.

Lamont, Corliss, The Philosophy of Humanism, 7th ed., Continuum Publishing Company, 1990. This work is a defense of modern Humanism as a philosophy with an account of its historical traditions and its ethical beliefs.

Margolin, Jean-Claude, Humanism in Europe at the Time of the Renaissance, translated by John L. Farthing, Labyrinth Press, 1981. Margolin compiles a survey of humanist literature, its proponents, and its connection to educational systems in Europe.

Nauert, Charles, Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe, Cambridge University Press, 1995. This offering is a contextual history of Humanism from its beginnings through the end of the Renaissance.

Ross, James Bruce, and Mary Martin McLaughlin, The Portable Renaissance Reader, The Viking Portable Library, 1977. This comprehensive anthology contains literature from the Renaissance, including samples from most of the key humanist thinkers.

Tracy, James D., Erasmus of the Low Countries, University of California Press, 1996. Tracy’s biography of Erasmus interprets his writings in light of his education, travels, and allies.

Trinkaus, Charles, The Poet as Philosopher: Petrarch and the Formation of Renaissance Consciousness, Yale University Press, 1979. Trinkaus provides a comprehensive biographical account of Petrarch’s life and works.

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