an investment and a status symbol, much as he sees his London house on Ducie Street.

The Influence of King Edward VII
The Edwardian Era, named after King Edward VII of England, officially lasted from 1901 to 1910, though many historians extend it to the onset of World War I in 1914. King Edward's character significantly shaped the period's attitude; his love for indulgence defined the era. He relished ceremonial and state events and enjoyed lavish entertaining. One of his first acts as king was redecorating the Royal Palaces. An enthusiastic sportsman, King Edward had a particular fondness for horse racing, hunting, and "motoring." Initially seen as a sport, motoring quickly became essential to daily life. In Howards End, the Wilcoxes heavily depend on their motor car.

King Edward surrounded himself with affluent individuals, often those who had amassed wealth through new industries like railways, steamships, and South African diamond mines. These individuals often displayed their wealth ostentatiously, a trait the king eagerly adopted. Known for his numerous affairs, King Edward's wife, Queen Alexandra, eventually accepted his infidelities. His behavior did not endear him to the old nobility and came to symbolize a rebellion against Victorian prudishness. The era was marked by the pursuit of pleasurable activities, making outings to music halls, theaters, sports events, and weekend parties in the countryside fashionable. In Howards End, Evie's weekend wedding at Omtron exemplifies the Edwardian penchant for extravagant entertainment.

Despite his vibrant social life, King Edward actively engaged in significant political matters. Well-traveled and multilingual, he participated in international affairs and improved relations with France. This alliance became vital as England increasingly felt the economic threat posed by Germany in global markets. With Germany's naval expansion and alliances with Austria-Hungary and Italy, the possibility of German dominance in Europe seemed imminent. The stage was being set for World War I, casting a tense atmosphere over Europe.

On the domestic front, one pressing issue that captured the king's attention was the severe and widespread poverty in England. Urban areas were plagued by high unemployment, and there was no welfare system in place. Only a small fraction of the population could afford the opulent, glamorous lifestyle popularized by the king and his circle. During this period, the gap between the rich and poor widened rapidly; the wealthy were getting richer through various lucrative investments in overseas markets throughout the Empire. Many were disturbed by the prevalence of poverty during a time of unprecedented prosperity. King Edward brought public attention to the issue by personally visiting some of London's worst slums and reporting his experiences to the House of Lords. He became an active member of the Royal Commissions, dedicated to alleviating the problems of the poor, and supported the idea of state aid for the elderly poor, which later became one of the earliest forms of welfare.

Social Change during the Edwardian Era
The Edwardian Era was marked by significant social and political changes. Industrialization, which had begun in the nineteenth century, compelled many people to leave their farms and seek employment in the cities. By 1910, the majority of the population resided in urban areas. London, in particular, was expanding rapidly, leading to issues of urban sprawl. The new tramway system and the "tube train" helped ease traffic congestion in downtown London and facilitated the growth of suburbs. Downtown London underwent a dramatic restructuring to accommodate more people and new businesses, resulting in the demolition of many old buildings. When the Schlegels' lease expires on Wickham Place, Margaret tells Ruth Wilcox that she assumes Wickham Place will be demolished and replaced with a new apartment building.

Simultaneously, numerous new inventions, such as the telephone, typewriter, electric motor, and automobile, revolutionized daily life. Labor-saving devices like the gas cooker and vacuum cleaner provided more leisure time. In the expanding business economy, the typewriter and telephone became invaluable tools, and opportunities for office workers increased. Many women eagerly took on these jobs, leaving behind labor-intensive, low-paying positions in the garment industry. Even affluent women began to seek work outside the home. No longer satisfied with just embroidery or painting lessons, many wealthy women started their own businesses.

During the Edwardian Era, a significant issue was women's suffrage, which saw many women actively participating in the movement. Early in the campaign, the movement split into two factions, with one group adopting more militant methods than the other. Led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, the militant faction employed attention-grabbing tactics to advance their cause. Known as the "suffragettes," they started by disrupting political meetings, smashing windows, and chaining themselves to railings. After 1911, with no progress on gaining the vote, the suffragettes escalated their actions to more violent measures. The nation was shocked when they began committing arson, cutting telephone wires, defacing paintings in public galleries, and planting bombs. Imprisoned suffragettes went on hunger strikes, resulting in forcible feedings and sparking intense public debate. Finally, in 1918, women over 30 were granted the right to vote; in 1928, the right was extended to women aged 21 and over. In Howards End, the Schlegel sisters are deeply invested in the suffrage movement and advocate for women's equality, whereas the Wilcoxes dismiss the idea of women voting as sheer nonsense.

The different settings depicted in Howards End are intertwined with the themes of inheritance and the question of which landscape—countryside, city, or suburbs—will shape England's future. During the Edwardian era, a significant migration from rural areas to urban centers took place, driven by England's transformation from an agrarian society to an industrialized nation. London, in particular, experienced rapid growth, leading to extensive rebuilding and restructuring. Innovations in transportation, including automobiles, tramcars, buses, and the subway, provided unprecedented mobility. Urban and suburban expansion, often referred to as "sprawl," followed the routes of these new transit systems. The novel expresses skepticism toward this type of progress and movement, favoring the enduring nature of country life and homes like Howards End over the impersonal, chaotic environment of London.

In Howards End, the three families are situated in three distinct locales: the Schlegels reside in London, the Wilcoxes divide their time between properties in London and the countryside (thanks to their "motor"), and the Basts live in the suburbs. There is considerable movement between the countryside and the city, with relocating being a significant theme in the novel. For Ruth Wilcox, nothing is more distressing than being separated from one's home. Upon learning that the Schlegels' lease on Wickham Place is ending, forcing them to move, she becomes deeply troubled. "To be parted from your house, your father's house—it oughtn't to be allowed.... Can what they call civilization be right, if people mayn't die in the room where they were born?" she laments to Margaret.

Setting
The diverse settings in Howards End reflect the theme of inheritance and which of England's landscapes—countryside, city, or suburbs—will shape the future. During the Edwardian era, there was a significant migration from rural areas to urban centers, driven by England's transition from an agrarian society to an industrialized one. London, in particular, experienced rapid growth and underwent extensive rebuilding and restructuring. Innovations in transportation, such as the automobile, tramcars, buses, and the subway, provided unprecedented mobility. Urban and suburban development, referred to as "sprawl," followed the routes of these new transit systems. The novel expresses caution towards this kind of progress, favoring the stability of rural life and homes like Howards End over the impersonal, chaotic environment of London.

The three families in Howards End reside in distinct locations: the Schlegels live in London, the Wilcoxes divide their time between London and the countryside (facilitated by their "motor"), and the Basts live in the suburbs. There is considerable movement between the countryside and the city, with relocating being a significant activity in the novel. For Ruth Wilcox, nothing is worse than being separated from one's home. When she learns that the Schlegels' lease on Wickham Place will soon end, forcing them to move, she is deeply troubled. "To be parted from your house, your father's house—it oughtn't to be allowed....Can what they call civilization be right, if people mayn't die in the room where they were born?" she remarks to Margaret.

SymbolismHowards End is rich with symbolism; many critics describe it as a parable with archetypal or mythic characters. The Wilcoxes represent the practical, materialistic, and enterprising individuals who have contributed to England's prosperity and the strength of its empire. The Schlegels, on the other hand, represent the intellectual and artistic types who value humanistic principles and the importance of the spirit. The marriage between Margaret and Henry exemplifies the relationship between these two personalities, highlighting the need for balance between them.

Among the Wilcoxes, Ruth is the only one who does not conform to their typical mold. She is detached from modern life, intuitive, spiritual, and not particularly intellectual. As Lionel Trilling notes, she embodies traditional values and ancestral wisdom. Alongside Miss Avery, the caretaker of Howards End, Ruth symbolizes the essential human connection to nature and the earth. Elements like the wych elm tree with the pig's teeth, the vine, and the hayfield at Howards End underscore this connection. The seasonal cycles and the rhythms of nature contrast sharply with the aimless movement of the modern, industrialized city, symbolized by the motorcar. The motorcar is consistently depicted in a negative light, bringing chaos and confusion wherever it goes, as shown in the scene where Charles hits a cat.

Other significant symbols include the Schlegel books, bookcase, and the family sword at Howards End, which play a crucial role in Leonard's demise. When Leonard collapses after Charles strikes him with the sword, he ends up literally buried in books. This scene suggests that the culture and intellectual refinement he so desperately pursued ultimately lead to his downfall. It is important to note that the sword and books belong to the Schlegels. While it seems Leonard perishes due to the Wilcoxes—Henry’s poor advice and Charles’s fatal blow—it’s also true that Helen’s sense of injustice, her anger towards the Wilcoxes, and her pity for Leonard directly contribute to his fate. The novel’s poignant irony lies in the fact that the person who tried hardest to help Leonard ended up being the one who inadvertently destroyed him.

Humor
Forster is highly acclaimed for his use of humor. Many scenes in the novel are rich with satire and irony. One of the earliest comedic moments involves Aunt Juley's trip to Howards End on behalf of Helen. The humor begins when Aunt Juley mistakes Charles for Paul. The realization of this mix-up leads to a quarrel about Helen's behavior, which escalates into a debate over which family, the Schlegels or the Wilcoxes, is superior. This trivial argument exposes the pretense of civility maintained by these supposedly well-bred individuals and foreshadows the more serious conflicts that will emerge between the two families.

Another humorous episode occurs when Margaret tries to have a serious conversation with Tibby about his future. She urges Tibby to consider pursuing a profession after graduation, not out of financial necessity, but because she believes it would build character. When she speaks of a man's desire to work, Tibby retorts, "I have no experience of this profound desire to which you allude." As a financially secure aesthete, Tibby sees no need to contemplate a career. He satirically remarks that he prefers "civilization without activity."

A semi-comic scene unfolds during the Wilcox family meeting about Ruth's bequest of Howards End. The Wilcoxes handle the meeting with a detached, business-like approach that mirrors their overall demeanor. Their distrust of personal relationships leads Charles to speculate that Margaret might have manipulated his mother into leaving her Howards End. Meanwhile, Dolly irrationally fears that Margaret is, at that very moment, on her way to evict them from the house. This scene highlights the Wilcoxes' suspicion and lack of manners, as they constantly assume others are trying to take advantage of them.

Howards End is a novel rich with symbolism; many critics consider it a parable featuring archetypal or mythic characters. The Wilcoxes represent the practical, materialistic, and entrepreneurial individuals who have contributed to England's prosperity and the strength of its empire. In contrast, the Schlegels embody the intellectual and artistic types who uphold humanistic values and the significance of the spirit. The marriage between Margaret and Henry illustrates the union of these two traits, highlighting the need for balance. Among the Wilcoxes, Ruth is the exception to their typical mold. She is detached from modern life, intuitive, spiritual, and not intellectual. As Lionel Trilling notes, she represents traditional values and ancestral wisdom. Together with Miss Avery, the caretaker of Howards End, Ruth symbolizes the essential human connection to nature and the earth. Elements like the wych elm tree with its pig's teeth, the vine, and the hayfield at Howards End further underscore this connection. The cyclical nature of the seasons and the rhythms of nature contrast sharply with the chaotic movement of the modern, industrialized city, epitomized by the motorcar. The motorcar is never depicted favorably; it brings chaos and confusion, as seen in the scene where Charles hits the cat.

Additional significant symbols include the Schlegel books and bookcase, as well as the family sword at Howards End, which play crucial roles in Leonard's death. When Leonard collapses from Charles's blow with the sword and ends up buried under books, it suggests that the culture and intellectual sophistication he desperately sought ultimately led to his downfall. Notably, the sword and books belong to the Schlegels. On the surface, it seems that Leonard's demise is at the hands of the Wilcoxes—Henry, by giving poor advice, and Charles, by delivering the fatal blow with the sword. However, if Helen had not been consumed by her sense of injustice, anger towards the Wilcoxes, and pity for Leonard, he might have survived. The novel's bitter irony lies in the fact that the person who tried hardest to help Leonard ended up causing his ruin.

Howards End is set during the Edwardian Era, named after King Edward VII of England. Though his reign lasted just nine years, from 1901 to 1910, many historians extend this period to the beginning of the First World War in 1914 due to the significant influence of the King's personality on the era's attitudes. Known for his hedonistic lifestyle, King Edward enjoyed ceremonial events and lavish entertaining. One of his initial actions as king was the redecoration of the Royal Palaces. An enthusiastic sportsman, he had a particular fondness for horse racing, hunting, and "motoring." Initially considered a sport, motoring quickly became an essential part of daily life. In Howards End, the Wilcoxes frequently rely on their automobile.

The king surrounded himself with affluent individuals, forming friendships with those who amassed fortunes in new industries like railways, steamships, and South African diamond mines. These associates often displayed crude and ostentatious behavior, which the king readily embraced. King Edward was also infamous for his numerous affairs, a fact that his wife, Queen Alexandra, eventually accepted. His behavior did not endear him to the old nobility and came to represent a backlash against the strict Victorian sensibilities. The era was marked by a pursuit of pleasurable activities, with outings to music halls, theaters, sporting events, and weekend country parties being quite fashionable. In Howards End, Evie's weekend wedding at Onitron epitomizes the Edwardian love for grand entertaining.

The Edwardian Era also witnessed significant social and political shifts. Industrialization, which began in the nineteenth century, compelled many to move from rural areas to cities for employment. By 1910, most of the population resided in urban areas. London, in particular, was expanding rapidly, leading to urban sprawl. The new tramway system and "tube train" helped ease traffic congestion in central London and promoted suburban growth. This expansion necessitated a dramatic transformation of downtown London, with many old buildings being demolished to make way for new businesses and residences. When the Schlegels' lease on Wickham Place expires, Margaret speculates to Ruth Wilcox that Wickham Place will likely be torn down to construct a new apartment building.

Simultaneously, numerous inventions like the telephone, typewriter, electric motor, and automobile were revolutionizing daily life. Labor-saving devices such as the gas cooker and vacuum cleaner provided people with more leisure time. In the burgeoning business economy, the typewriter and telephone became invaluable, leading to increased opportunities for office workers. Many women took these jobs, eager to leave the labor-intensive, low-paying garment industry. Even affluent women began seeking work outside the home. No longer satisfied with traditional pastimes like embroidery or painting lessons, many wealthy women started their own businesses.

During the Edwardian Era, a major issue was women's suffrage, and many women became actively involved in the movement. Initially, the suffrage campaign divided into two groups, with one faction being more militant in its approach. The militant group, led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, used tactics aimed at garnering widespread attention for the cause. Known as the "suffragettes," they began by disrupting political meetings, breaking windows, and chaining themselves to railings.

By 1911, women still had not been granted the right to vote, prompting the suffragettes to adopt more violent methods. The nation was shocked as they turned to arson, cutting telephone wires, vandalizing paintings in public galleries, and even throwing bombs. Imprisoned suffragettes engaged in hunger strikes, which led to forcible feedings and sparked intense public debate. Finally, in 1918, women over the age of 30 were granted the right to vote, and this right was extended to women aged 21 and over in 1928.

In Howards End, the Schlegel sisters are deeply interested in the suffrage issue and advocate for women's equality, while the Wilcoxes dismiss the idea of women voting as sheer nonsense.

1910: The British Empire encompasses India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Ireland, parts of Africa and Indonesia, and numerous islands around the world.

Today: Many nations that were once part of the British Empire have gained independence but remain members of the Commonwealth of Nations, an organization of independent and dependent countries that recognize the United Kingdom of Great Britain as the Head of the Commonwealth.

1910: A Rolls Royce costs about 1,100 British pounds, while more affordable cars are available for around 200 British pounds.

Today: A Rolls Royce costs approximately 125,000 British pounds, and less expensive cars can be purchased for about 6,000 British pounds.

1910: A college education at Oxford or Cambridge University is only accessible to the wealthy.

Today: Scholarships and state funding have made education at Oxford or Cambridge much more accessible.

1910: For the first time in British history, the majority of the population resides in urban areas.

Today: About 80 percent of the British population lives in urban areas.

In Forster's debut novel, Where Angels Fear to Tread (1905), he juxtaposes the lively, liberated existence of Italians with the artificial, hypocritical, and bourgeois lifestyle of suburban Londoners visiting an Italian village. In A Room with a View (1908), Forster centers on a young woman's romantic journey and her struggle against Victorian norms. Forster continued to delve into English society, this time within the context of colonial India, with his final and most acclaimed novel, A Passage to India (1924).

Howards End was adapted for the stage by Lance Sieveking and Richard Cottrell and was produced in London in 1967. A BBC adaptation of Howards End by Pauline Macaulay was broadcast in 1970.

A film adaptation of Howards End was released by Merchant Ivory Productions in 1992, featuring Emma Thompson and Anthony Hopkins. The film earned nine Academy Award nominations, winning Best Actress (Thompson), Best Screenplay Adaptation, and Best Art Direction. It is available through Columbia TriStar Home Video.

Howards End was transformed into a stage play by Lance Sieveking and Richard Cottrell, premiering in London in 1967.

The BBC aired a version of Howards End adapted by Pauline Macaulay in 1970.

In 1992, Merchant Ivory Productions released a film adaptation of Howards End featuring Emma Thompson and Anthony Hopkins. The movie received nine Academy Award nominations and won awards for Best Actress (Thompson), Best Screenplay Adaptation, and Best Art Direction. This film can be obtained from Columbia TriStar Home Video.

Bradbury, Malcolm. "E.M. Forster as Victorian and Modern: Howards End and A Passage to India." In Possibilities. London: Oxford University Press, 1973, pp. 91-120. This work offers a somewhat critical examination of the dualities that Bradbury perceives in Forster's literature.

Cavaliero, Glen. "Maurice and the Later Stories." In A Reading of E.M. Forster. Macmillan, 1979, pp. 129-45. A fascinating and favorable discussion of Maurice and several of Forster's short stories published posthumously.

Colmer, John. "E.M. Forster: Overview." In Reference Guide to English Literature, 2nd Edition. Edited by D.L. Kirkpatrick. Detroit: St. James Press, 1991. This entry provides a concise overview of Forster's life and his significant literary contributions.

Menand, Louis. Review of Selected Letters of E.M. Forster, volume one: 1879-1920, volume two: 1921-1970. The National Republic (March 25, 1985): 30-33. A positive review that also includes some biographical details about Forster.

Page, Malcolm. "Howards End: Overview." In Reference Guide to English Literature, 2nd Edition. Edited by D.L. Kirkpatrick. Detroit: St. James Press, 1991. An exploration of the literary themes present in Howards End.

Sources
Born, Daniel, "Private Gardens, Public Swamps: Howards End and the Revaluation of Liberal Guilt," Novel: A Forum on Fiction, Vol. 25, No. 2, 1992, pp. 141-159.

Bradbury, Malcolm, "Howards End," in Forster: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Malcolm Bradbury, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1966, pp. 131.

Crews, Frederick, E.M. Forster: The Penis of Humanism, Princeton University Press, 1962.

Levenson, Michael, "Liberalism and Symbolism in Howards End," in his Modernism and the Fate of Individuality, Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 78-93.

McDowell, Frederick P. W., '"Glimpses of the Diviner Wheels': Howards End," in E.M. Forster, revised edition, Twayne Publishing, 1982, pp. 82.

------, '"Unexplained Riches and Unused Methods of Release': Nonfictional Prose and General Estimate," in E.M. Forster, revised edition, Twayne Publishing, 1982, pp. 149-159.

Meisel, Perry, "Howards End: Private Worlds and Public Languages," in his The Myth of the Modern: A Study in British Literature and Criticism after 1850, Yale University Press, 1987, pp. 173-182.

Morning Leader, "The Part and the Whole," October 28, 1910, pp. 3.

Review, in The Times Literary Supplement, No. 459, October 27, 1910, pp. 421.

Stone, Wilfred, "Howards End: Red-Bloods and Mollycoddles," in his The Cave and the Mountain: A Study of E.M. Forster, Stanford University Press, 1966.

For Further Study
Forster, E.M., Aspects of the Novel, E. Arnold, 1963. A compilation of lectures given by Forster on the craft of novel writing.

Forster, E.M., Marianne Thornton: A Domestic Biography, 1797-1887, Harcourt Brace, 1956. This biography of Forster's paternal aunt, Marianne Thornton, also explores Forster's intellectual heritage and family background.

Furbank, P.N., E.M. Forster: A Life, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1978. The authoritative biography of E.M. Forster.

Gardner, Philip, ed., E.M. Forster: The Critical Heritage, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973. This book is a compilation of early critical essays on Forster's works.

Lago, Mary, and P.N. Furbank, eds., Selected Letters of E.M. Forster, 2 Vols, Belknap Press, 1983-1985. A collection of E.M. Forster's personal letters.