Chapters 10-12
Chapter 10: Fortress America
What Happens:
Inhabitants of U.S. territories experienced the daily presence of empire. Every day, they saluted the U.S. flag, studied U.S. history, used U.S. currency, and learned English. Mainlanders, however, overlooked the empire's existence. Media and literature rarely discussed U.S. territories, and the government showed little interest in effective governance.
The indifference toward the colonies in the culture was met with an equal indifference in the government. …[the] territories were ruled by a haphazard and improvised set of bureaucratic arrangements under the army, navy, and Department of the Interior.
The colonies, including the Philippines, faced economic challenges during the Great Depression. Mainland indifference often further jeopardized their survival. Leading up to World War II, many Filipinos sought independence. The movement quickly gained momentum, and the U.S. consented to a ten-year transitional period during which the Philippines might gain its independence.
Yet, this bid for independence coincided with Japanese aggression; America’s willingness to permit Filipinos their freedom came not from compassion but from an unwillingness to provide their colonies with adequate protection or support. General Douglas MacArthur, a high-ranking American military official with strong ties to the Philippines, resented this treatment:
[He] understood the Philippines to be “an integral part of the United States,” as deserving of defense as New York. But he had to admit by 1940 that the military forces stationed there were “entirely inadequate for purposes of foreign defense and are little more than token symbols of the sovereignty of the United States.”
Why it Matters:
During the Great Depression and the years directly preceding World War II, American attitudes toward their overseas territories underwent a dramatic shift. Though they still offered unique opportunities for military bases in the Pacific, they were also vulnerable to Japanese encroachment. The U.S. had to decide whether to defend their claim and waste resources on their unacknowledged territories or allow them to become independent and, therefore, no longer their problem.
Yet, they could not abandon these colonies entirely. Immerwahr focuses heavily on General Douglas MacArthur's efforts to build up the defense of the Philippines. In doing so, he points out the strategic importance of the colonies in light of rising geopolitical tensions in the Pacific. Overall, this chapter provides valuable insight into the intricate colonial dynamics during this crucial period.
Chapter 11: Warfare State
What Happens:
During World War II, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor educated Americans about the significance of their territories. The nation soon recognized Alaska's strategic importance, which led to the frantic and expensive construction of a highway connecting Alaska with the mainland.
In Hawai’i, the American government, worried about the Japanese threat, imposed martial law and transformed the leisurely paradise into an armed camp. The strict military control affected daily life through measures like mass fingerprinting and compulsory vaccinations. Worse, the restrictions directly impacted Hawaiians themselves:
The military also insisted on extraordinary precautions against the people of Hawai‘i themselves. Hawai‘i was “enemy country,” as the secretary of the navy saw it, with a suspect population, more than one-third of which was of Japanese ancestry.
The territories' involvement in the war showcased the impact of militarization on backwaters, bringing federal money and jobs, yes, but also leading to government intrusions. In Alaska, Governor Gruening organized the Alaska Territorial Guard, enlisting around twenty thousand Alaska Natives to defend against a potential Japanese invasion. Meanwhile, Japanese Americans from Hawaii, including the 100th Infantry Battalion and the 442nd Infantry Regiment, displayed exceptional bravery and fought valiantly in Europe.
American citizens living in the colonies sought to prove their loyalty, and the war presented an excellent opportunity to...
(This entire section contains 1281 words.)
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do so. They sacrificed their land, their way of life, and in the case of many volunteer infantrymen, their lives. But despite their sacrifices, they were no further to earning the freedoms and national identity they fought to protect.
Why it Matters:
The chapter illuminates lesser-known aspects of World War II's impact on the Pacific territories. It highlights the newfound strategic importance of Alaska and Hawaii, leading to significant infrastructure development, such as the Alaska Highway connecting the U.S. with its territories. The imposition of martial law and strict military control in Hawai’i reveals the profound changes war brought to civilian life and sheds light on the mistreatment of forcibly interned Japanese Americans.
Immerwahr showcases the significant contributions of the Pacific territories to the U.S. war effort, including high Hawaiian war bond sales and the formation of the Alaska Territorial Guard by Alaska Natives. Additionally, the valor displayed by Japanese Americans from Hawaii in forming the 100th Infantry Battalion and 442nd Infantry Regiment reflects their dedication and resilience despite facing discrimination. By highlighting the presence of marginalized groups and their respective territorial homes, Immerwahr explains that those living in the territories were readily exploitable—and willing to fight for a country that refused to claim them.
Chapter 12: There Are Times When Men Have to Die
What Happens:
During World War II, both Hawaii and Alaska were militarized to prepare for a possible Japanese invasion. Despite experiencing attacks, they remained mostly intact compared to other Western colonies in the Pacific, many of which were invaded and conquered.
The war began with the infamous attack on Pearl Harbor, which was part of a larger simultaneous strike on various Allied colonies in the Pacific. The Japanese plan had some flaws, as territories attacked first could warn others. Despite the potential pitfalls, the plan went off without a hitch, as General Douglas MacArthur, despite the advance warning, did not take action until it was too late.
Japan’s pilots had every reason to fear that by the time they reached the Philippines, MacArthur would be waiting. Perhaps his B-17s would bomb Taiwan before their planes could even take off. But that’s not what happened—not even close…They [the planes] were on the ground, lined up in rows. The astonished Japanese pilots dropped their bombs.
The war inflicted significant suffering on the Philippines, yet American media largely focused on white American soldiers and heroes. Most ignored the contributions and sacrifices of Filipino soldiers and other Pacific islanders entirely. Throughout the 1940s, cities were razed, civilians were killed, and soldiers were tortured. Death and destruction in the territories did not penetrate the American consciousness. Some American soldiers serving in the Philippines were unaware it was an American colony, mistakenly believing it to be a "foreign country." Even today, the truth is overlooked:
The Second World War in the Philippines rarely appears in history textbooks. But it should. It was by far the most destructive event ever to take place on U.S. soil.
Why it Matters:
America’s Pacific territories faced immense prejudice and injustice, culminating in awful violence. The Philippines, in particular, experienced untold suffering. It was occupied by the Japanese military and then forcibly retaken by American soldiers in an effort that resulted in extreme civilian casualties. Their wartime experience sowed anti-American sentiment; post-war, Filipinos expressed their bitterness toward American colonialism through strong independence sentiments.
Immerwahr relies on jaw-dropping detail to underscore the horrors that American perspectives toward their territories permitted. Because most Americans—including American politicians—did not see the territories as American soil or occupied by American citizens, they felt no desire to protect them. Instead, they suffered occupation and reoccupation, left behind by a nation more than willing to exploit them.
The last chapter of part one, this chapter emphasizes the importance of recognizing the devastating and complex impact of World War II in the Pacific to further reveal the obscure aspects of the United States' territorial history.
