these techniques, striving for a more "objective" tragedy by removing the overtly poetic elements that previously defined his style. His friend, Adolfo Salazar, observed that after reading each scene, Lorca would declare, "Not a drop of poetry! Reality! Realism!"The House of Bernarda Alba lacks the stylized elements found in the other two plays of the trilogy but never fully embraces pure realism. Lorca described the play as a "photographic record," indicating an effort to depict rural Spanish life in a naturalistic way. The play's language is meticulously crafted to reveal character traits; it remains poetic without blatantly sounding like poetry. Similarly, while the settings appear naturalistic, reminiscent of an actual house in the Spanish countryside, they are also stylized. The white walls symbolize purity but also reflect the sterility and monotony of life in Bernarda's household.

Classical Tragedy
Dennis Klein noted that Lorca aimed for his theater to "capture the drama of contemporary life and inspire passion as classical drama did." Lorca himself stated that his goal in writing his tragic trilogy was to adhere to the Aristotelian principles of tragedy. However, he deviated significantly from this aim. The House of Bernarda Alba aligns more closely with the structure of classical tragedy than the other two plays, although it still diverges in many ways. Lorca remained true to the essence of classical tragedy without strictly following the rules, such as the unities of time, place, and action. This breaking of the unities aligns with the history of Spanish theater, as Lorca's drama was as much rooted in the traditions of the Spanish Golden Age and European puppet farce as in classical precedents. Lorca's trilogy is structured as dramatic crescendos, with a pivotal event around which the rest of the action revolves. In this sense, The House of Bernarda Alba has a classical structure. The play also echoes Greek tragedy in its focus on a household or lineage, its strong sense of fatalism, and the cathartic nature of the final scenes. Additionally, Lorca subtly employed the classical technique of the chorus to comment on the play's action. Each play in the trilogy includes a chorus; in The House of Bernarda Alba, this role is fulfilled by the neighbors in Act I and the other daughters, aside from Adela.

Dramatic Structure
Lorca stripped down the details of storytelling in his plays to focus on other theatrical elements. The House of Bernarda Alba features an episodic and almost perfectly circular structure. It begins with Bernarda returning from one funeral and concludes with her arranging another. Despite the loss of her youngest daughter, Bernarda learns nothing and continues her oppressive control, which Adela tragically rebelled against. The repetition of Bernarda's command "Silence!" initially carries an authoritarian tone but feels hollow by the play's end.

Folklore
Lorca, known for his works about peasants and gypsies, drew deeply from his knowledge of rural Spanish life. Edward Honig notes that "Lorca was rebelling against the realistic middle-class drama, which in Spain had succeeded in shutting off from the stage the rich atmosphere of folk speech and imagination." Lorca's work blends surrealistic imagery with popular folklore, creating a personal style that melds modern sensibility with a variety of techniques. Folk elements are essential in a play like The House of Bernarda Alba, but unlike many of his contemporaries, Lorca does not romanticize rural life.

Among these folk elements, the lullabies of Andalusia were particularly significant to Lorca; he even delivered a lengthy lecture on these songs. Singing is a recurring feature throughout his trilogy, although the other two plays contain more poetry than The House of Bernarda Alba. For instance, Maria Josefa's lullaby to the lamb allows her to express her maternal instincts and her feelings about her daughter.

Poetic Devices
Lorca is often considered a poet who turned to theatre because he found lyric poetry insufficient. However, his brother argues that theatre and theatricality were integral to Lorca from childhood and throughout his life. "I would say that, just as someone called him 'poet by the grace of God,' he was dramatist by the same grace. We need to say, then, that his dramatic expression was as pressing in him as the need for lyric expression." While writing The House of Bernarda Alba, Lorca aimed to keep it devoid of poetry, avoiding the special effects and metaphorical characters present in his other two plays. Nonetheless, the poet's touch is evident; there is poetry even without verse.

The play is rich with symbolic elements typically found in poetic works. Each character is a fully-developed individual with a distinct name, marking a shift from the allegorical figures in Lorca's other plays. These characters also carry symbolic meanings through onomastic imagery, where their names reflect their traits. For instance, Angustias hints at anguish, Martirio at martyrdom, and Prudencia at prudence.

Water serves as another crucial symbol for Lorca, representing sexual vitality. Bernarda's daughters drink water not merely to satisfy their thirst but to alleviate their sexual frustration. Simultaneously, water can also symbolize turmoil, as the disturbances in Bernarda's house are metaphorically described as a storm. Weather, in general, holds symbolic significance, with heat representing intense sexual frustration. Since the men are outside on the patio, they remain cooler, indicating they do not experience sexual repression.

Through these and other symbolic images, such as the notable use of animal references, Lorca maintains a poetic essence in his writing, even in this otherwise straightforward play.

1936: The values and traditions of rural society are deeply rooted in Spain, despite the pressures of modernization.

Today: Although rural communities in Spain and other regions still exist, traditional lifestyles have largely vanished. As people move to cities for employment opportunities, television and other media bring urban issues to rural areas in unprecedented ways.

1936: Women's rights are severely limited, and their economic reliance on men keeps them in traditionally subordinate roles.

Today: Women in Spain and around the world have gained significant rights, yet many still face societal expectations that often exclude professional success.

1936: Spain is embroiled in a civil war driven by economic inequalities, which are exacerbated by a struggling economy.

Today: Spain has made strides in diversifying and strengthening its economy, but still grapples with high unemployment rates and remains one of the poorer EU member states. Ongoing violence from rebel groups, such as the ETA in the Basque region, indicates that many social and political issues persist.

1936: Lorca is arrested and executed by rebels supporting General Francisco Franco's fascist uprising. For years, Lorca and his works are banned subjects in Spain.

Today: Since Franco's death in 1975, Lorca is celebrated and appreciated for his contributions. He is openly revered in Spain as one of the century's greatest poets, a status he had maintained internationally.

1936: Believing in the communist ideal of collective ownership of land and resources, brigades of Spanish Republicans and international allies fervently fight against Franco's forces.

Today: Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the success of the American embargo against Cuba, communism is generally seen as a failed political system. The idea of collective ownership is no longer a mainstream political stance in the United States.

The House of Bernarda Alba was brought to American television audiences in 1960 as part of the "Play of the Week" series. The adaptation and translation were handled by James Graham-Lujan and Richard O'Connell. The cast featured Anne Revere as Bernarda Alba, Eileen Heckart as La Poncia, and Suzanne Pleshette as Adela.

In 1990, the play was transformed into a Spanish film under the direction of Mario Camus (Gala).

In 1992, a British television adaptation debuted, directed by Nuria Espert and Stuart Burge (Channel 4).

SOURCES
Bentley, Eric, "The Poet in Dublin" in In Search of Theatre, Knopf (New York City), 1953.

Benet, William Rose, "Singing Spain" in the Saturday Review, October 2, 1937, p. 18.

Bianco-Gonzalez, Manuel, "Lorca: The Tragic Trilogy" in Drama Critique, September 2, 1966, pp. 91-97.

Burton, Juhanne, "The Greatest Punishment: Female and Male in Lorca's Tragedies" in Women in Hispanic Literature: Icons and Fallen Idols, edited by Beth Miller, University of California Press (Berkeley), 1983, pp. 259-79.

Carrier, Warren, "Poetry in the Drama of Lorca" in Drama Survey, February 3, 1963, pp. 297-304.

Cobb, Carl, "Federico Garcia Lorca" in Twayne's World Author Series, Volume 23, Twayne (New York City), 1967.

Garcia Lorca, Francisco, Prologue to Three Tragedies by Federico Garcia Lorca, New Directions Publishing Corporation (New York City), 1955, pp. 1-29.

Gilmour, John, "The Cross of Pain and Death: Religion in the Rural Tragedies" in Lorca: Poet and Playwright, edited by Robert Havard, St. Martin's Press (New York City), 1992, pp. 133-55.

Honig, Edwin, Garcia Lorca, New Directions (Norfolk, CT), 1963.

Humphries, Rolfe, "The Life and Death of Garcia Lorca" in the Nation, September 18, 1937, pp. 293-94.

Lewis, Allan, "The Folklore Theatre—Garcia Lorca" in The Contemporary Theatre: The Significant Playwrights of Our Time, Crown (New York City), 1971, pp. 242-58.

Shanley, John P., "Garcia Lorca Work on 'Play of the Week'" in New York Times, June 7, 1960.

Williams, William Carlos, "Federico Garcia Lorca" in Selected Essays of William Carlos Williams, Random House (New York City), 1954, pp. 219-30.

FURTHER READING
Colecchia, Francesca, Editor, Garcia Lorca: A Selectively Annotated Bibliography of Criticism, Garland (New York City), 1979; Garcia Lorca: An Annotated Primary Bibliography, Garland, 1982.
These extensive bibliographies offer numerous valuable listings for researchers. One volume focuses on scholarship related to Lorca's plays, while the other covers Lorca's works in both Spanish and translation.

Klein, Dennis, A Blood Wedding, Yerma, and The House of Bernarda Alba: Garcia Lorca's Tragic Trilogy, G.K. Hall & Co. (Boston), 1991.
This is the first in-depth critical study dedicated to Lorca's tragic trilogy. The author describes these works as "the most accomplished and mature efforts of the finest Spanish playwright of the twentieth century." Klein examines the original Spanish texts, providing his own English translations, and explores the trilogy within the broader context of Lorca's career as a poet, playwright, director, and visual artist, as well as within the social context of Lorca's Spain.

Lima, Robert, The Theater of Garcia Lorca, Las Americas (New York City), 1963.
This critical study reviews all of Lorca's plays available in print at the time of its publication.

Londre, Felicia Hardison, Federico Garcia Lorca, Ungar (New York City), 1984.
This work examines Lorca's artistry by emphasizing an integrated approach to his poetry, drama, music, visual art, and stage direction. It includes a full chapter on what Lorca called his "unperformable plays." The House of Bernarda Alba is analyzed in detail on pp. 172-180 and discussed throughout the book.

Newton, Candelas, Understanding Federico Garcia Lorca, University of South Carolina Press (Columbia), 1995.
Newton offers readers an insight into the Andalusian region where Lorca was born, providing a foundation for appreciating his literary works. She draws connections across Lorca's oeuvre to showcase the diverse methods he employed. The book includes an annotated bibliography and additional resources for student researchers.

Twentieth Century Literary Criticism, Vols 1, 7, 49, Gale (Detroit), 1978, 1982, 1994.
This compilation of critical selections is an excellent starting point for researching Federico Garcia Lorca. The pieces in these volumes cover the entirety of Lorca's career. Additionally, Volume 2 of Gale's Drama Criticism is recommended. For a comprehensive overview of Lorca's life, refer to his entry in Volume 108 of the Dictionary of Literary Biography.