government would be orderly and unified, and the civil servants in charge of day-to-day operations would get their positions not because they were born to an elite class, but because they studied, were well-trained, and passed civil service exams.

Plutarch, who lived from approximately 46 to 120 CE, was born to a wealthy Greek family and was both a Greek and Roman citizen during the time of the Roman Empire, which encompassed the Mediterranean Sea and much of Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia. As a young man, he had studied mathematics and philosophy and also had been active in local government and as a traveling ambassador around the empire. Later he was a priest at the the temple of Apollo. He hosted gatherings of elite scholars and government officials throughout the empire. All of this lead to his publishing essays and biographies that elucidated his moral and educational philosophy.

Plutarch’s political philosophy was Platonic, and he questioned the moral behavior of autocrats. He compared the vices and virtues of famous Greeks and Romans and concluded that the influence of their characters was more important than the historical events of their times. He looked for the similarities in human nature throughout the world and argued that, although the world soul could do great evil, through reasoning it could become a divine soul and make choices via free will. He also was tolerant of all religions and saw them as various expressions of the same divine source. These teachings were reflective of the far-flung empire in which he lived and thus could be useful in governing a diverse populace.

Plutarch promoted the ideas of free will and the immortal soul. He preferred to contemplate religious and moral questions rather than abstract, theoretical ones. His values were also monotheistic; he believed that one Being created the universe, and this Being was represented in the gods and myths of other religions. Plutarch opposed other popular teachings of the era, such as the materialism present in Stoicism and the atheistic theories of Epicureanism. He also did not view the gods of the Greek pantheon as literal beings, but as sources of philosophical lessons and vessels for a singular higher power.

The foundation of Confucian philosophy is the Five Constants: humanity, justice, rite, knowledge, and integrity. The goal of these teachings is to help followers find balance through the contemplation of their own human-ness. Confucianism is a reactionary philosophy that emerged during the Warring States period of Chinese history. Born in a time of chaos and confusion, Confucianism focused on the importance of achieving mental tranquility.

Plutarch and Confucius are similar in their value of connecting to a higher power via contemplation, as well as a goal of unifying with the universe. The creation theories in the two philosophies differ slightly. Both teach that the universe was created from matter. However, Plutarch believes this matter, originally evil and chaotic, was harnessed by a single being and endowed with order and reason. Confucius taught that the universe created itself out of matter in a chaotic state, coming together through the balancing opposing forces. This balance became known as yin and yang.