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What unique achievement did the Romans accomplish according to Polybius, and how did they maintain cohesion in their empire?
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According to Polybius, the Romans achieved a unique and unprecedented level of global conquest and stability by integrating conquered peoples into their empire. They offered Roman citizenship, incorporated local elites into the Roman administration, and recruited local men into the military. This approach minimized rebellion by eradicating local identities and fostering loyalty to Rome. Additionally, their focus on infrastructure, law, and personal freedoms contributed to the cohesion and durability of the Roman Empire.
Polybius ( c. 208–c. 125 BCE) was a Greek historian whose Histories covered the period from 264–146 BCE, which saw the dramatic rise of the Roman Empire. His perspective as a writer is quite important, as the Greeks both regarded Romans as uncultured barbarians and were swiftly conquered by them. Polybius would not have known of the great empires of China or the far east and is, to a degree, flattering Rome in overlooking the equally great empires of Mesopotamia, Persia and Egypt. The most recent empire of Polybius's memory to have risen and fallen suddenly was that of Alexander the Great, but as Polybius could point out, that disintegrated after Alexander's death.
In many ways, Rome became great by changing itself from a small Italian city to an empire modeled on the administrative structures developed in Persia. A key to Rome's greatness and durability was its focus on infrastructure. Rome built...
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spectacular systems of roads and organized systematic forms of communication and transportation that allowed it to administrate vast territories effectively. Its aqueducts allowed for the growth of wealthy urban areas, and its grain distribution system fed the residents of the great city of Rome and made its citizens less likely to rebel.
Rome, like other great empires, emphasized elaborate law codes and rule of law, something that encouraged trade and entrepreneurship. It allowed local elites to remain in power and gave residents substantial personal and religious freedom so long as they did not rebel, meaning that locals generally had little reason to revolt, especially as the local elites were co-opted by being allowed power over local affairs. Enterprising young men of the conquered areas could become Roman citizens by serving in the legions, turning potential rebels into patriots. Even enterprising slaves could become freedmen and achieve wealth and power over a few generations.
In many ways, Rome thrived as an empire because, especially during the Pax Romana, it was a good place to live, with rule of law, decent infrastructure, and relative personal freedom for its period.
Polybius understood that Rome was doing something unheard of in history. They were legitimately conquering the world, but the most impressive thing wasn't the spread of their empire. Alexander the Great had attempted to conquer the known world and held a large territory for a period of time, and Genghis Khan would later try to accomplish the same. However, none were as successful as the Roman Empire, which held its control for centuries.
What Polybius understood was just how impressive their system of ruling and creating stability was. In every other case, people revolted after being taken over by an imperial power. Uprisings would make a large empire like that untenable. Rome, however, found the key to preventing those uprisings, and this was the secret with which Polybius was so impressed.
When Rome took over a new land, they did several things, but most importantly, they ensured that these new people became Roman citizens first. If Rome could eradicate local identities, they reasoned that these peoples would feel less of a tie to their local traditions and more subservient to Rome. Thus, they first broke these peoples' local ties. By keeping an established military force in the area for quite some time, the Roman empire prevented the initial outbursts that could cause uprisings. Over time, the rebellious tendencies faded as the populace settled into their new normal as Roman citizens.
The next step they took was to ensure that respected locals were incorporated into Rome. Leaders would be given prominent positions under Rome's rule, which would serve two purposes: first, there would be continuity in local leadership which calmed many people, and second, it took local leaders and incorporated them into Rome's government, so anyone who was looked up to was now seen as "Roman." This psychological tactic was very effective.
Finally, Rome would take the young men of the area they conquered and incorporate them into the military. By doing this, they expanded their own military might, were able to instill Roman views into these impressionable minds, separated the fittest people from their local culture, prevented uprisings from these groups, and make these young men more dependent on Rome by providing food and lodging to them.
The tactics were mainly psychological, but they were brilliant. These ideas were what fascinated Polybius and impressed him so much about Roman leadership. It was, really, a very effective way to subdue nations brought under a new control.