Places Discussed
Magic circle
Magic circle. Center of an occult ritual performed in the duke of Gloucester’s house in London. Two priests and a witch draw the circle in which demons appear so that the duchess of Gloucester can advance her husband’s career through magical prophecies. As stage entertainment, this séance can thrill an audience with its necromancy, artificial thunder and lightning, demons rising from a trap door, and prophetic riddles. However, Shakespeare also invests the scene with irony and menace. This diabolical action occurs in the house of the honest and patriotic duke of Gloucester without his knowledge, suggesting that the corruption spreading through England touches even decent people. Moreover, the séance is part of a plot by the duke’s enemies, who will use the duchess’s magical practices against her husband.
*St. Albans
*St. Albans. English town north of London. St. Albans is a setting at both the beginning and the end of this play and highlights the play’s main actions: the duke of Gloucester’s fall and the coming of civil war. First, while King Henry vacations in the town, the political conspiracy against the upright Gloucester bears fruit when he is publicly disgraced by his wife’s crime of witchcraft. Second, the Wars of the Roses begin in St. Albans with the first Battle of St. Albans. This fight occurs within the town rather than on an outlying battlefield, emphasizing the breakdown of law and order. The town’s sufferings foreshadow those of England itself.
*Jack Cade’s camp
*Jack Cade’s camp. Headquarters of a popular revolt against King Henry, which ended in London. Shakespeare transforms the historical Cade’s Revolt into a violent, anarchic affair, suggesting the fragility of England under Henry VI. Cade promises his followers a carnival England of social equality, commonly held property, and free-flowing wine and beer. However, his camp is a bloody tyranny in which men are killed for being literate or for failing to call Cade by his assumed title. The violence in Cade’s camp parodies and foreshadows the duke of York’s impending coup.
Modern Connections
Last Updated October 3, 2024.
Although Shakespeare's works were written for a different era, their themes are so effectively dramatized and poetically expressed that they resonate strongly with a late twentieth-century audience, many of whom have only a limited understanding of the Wars of the Roses. Henry VI, Part Two explores three themes that remain relevant today: defining legitimate authority, the essentials of good governance, and the significance of family roles.
Under Henry VI's reign, England is in turmoil. This disorder partly stems from Henry VI's uncertainty regarding the legitimacy of his claim to the throne. The Duke of York has a stronger claim by lineage, tracing his ancestry to an elder son of Edward I, while Henry VI's claim is based on the power seized by his grandfather, Henry IV, who deposed Richard II.
In democratic nations, authority is established through elections, yet there have been instances in Europe and beyond where accusations of electoral fraud or manipulation have cast doubt on who the rightful leader is. A notable example is the former Yugoslavia. In 1996, Slobodan Milosevic manipulated the Serbian Supreme Court to endorse election results that were favorable to him but questionable. Furthermore, one can debate which voting system best reflects a nation's power dynamics. Proportional representation offers a detailed reflection of public opinion but has led to frequent government changes in Italy since World War II. Additionally, the question arises whether a minority government should govern in a democracy, as was the case in Britain in 1979 and 1996....
(This entire section contains 698 words.)
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Ultimately, the issue revolves around how legitimate authority is defined, a question that is as pertinent to today's democracies and republics as it was to monarchies of the fifteenth century.
Another reason for the chaos in Henry VI's England is his ineffective governance. He fails to assert his kingly authority. For instance, when Suffolk arrests Gloucester on fabricated charges (III.i.95-222), Henry VI takes no action to prevent it, even though he knows Gloucester is loyal. Instead, he exits the scene in tears, unable to handle the situation. Later, during a duel between Warwick and Winchester in his presence (III.ii.236-41), the king offers only the mildest reprimand. When it comes to decision-making, he simply acquiesces to the desires of his powerful subjects (III.i.316-17). As a ruler, Shakespeare portrays Henry VI as failing to make decisive choices necessary for effective governance.
In contemporary democracies and republics, there is a persistent demand for effective decision-making, though this need is not always met. Many believe that John Major in Britain has not been as decisive as Margaret Thatcher in making the consistent decisions expected of Prime Ministers. In the United States, surveys have shown that people often feel the House of Representatives and the Senate create gridlock instead of passing legislation. Similarly, President Clinton, like his predecessors, has sometimes struggled to provide clear direction for the nation. Previous presidents, such as Grant, Wilson, Hoover, and Coolidge, faced similar criticisms.
Apart from the issues of how power is acquired and wielded, Henry VI, Part Two extensively explores the role of family. On one side, family prominence leads to unfavorable comparisons: Henry VI pales in comparison to his father, Henry V, who is arguably one of the most cherished monarchs in English history. On the other side, family becomes a tool for perpetuating revenge. A central theme of Henry VI, Part Three is the significance of vengeance in a society where the concept of legal justice is not yet fully developed. The conclusion of Henry VI, Part Two hints at this theme through the death of old Clifford at the hands of York and the vengeful outcry from Clifford’s son. Young Clifford vows to be ruthless:
Henceforth I will not have to do with pity.
Meet I an infant of the house of York,
Into as many gobbets will I cut it
As wild Medea young Absyrtus did;
In cruelty will I seek out my fame.
(V.ii.56-60)
While such a declaration is extreme, audiences watching the play can likely relate to these two themes: the challenge of a son living up to his father's legacy and the enduring family feuds that persist long after the original conflict has been forgotten.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Last Updated October 3, 2024.
Baker, Herschel. Introduction to Henry VI, Parts 1, 2, and 3, by William Shakespeare. In the Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G. Blakemore Evans, 587-95. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1974. Baker highlights how the events in the trilogy's first part influence the subsequent two parts. He considers Henry VI, Part Two to be "much more soundly built" compared to Henry VI, Part One.
Bevington, David. Introduction to The Second Part of King Henry the Sixth, by William Shakespeare. In The Complete Works of Shakespeare, edited by David Bevington, 538-40. Updated 4th ed. New York: Longman, 1997. Bevington emphasizes the play's "integrity of theme and dramatic form."
Cairncross, Andrew S. Introduction to The Second Part of King Henry VI, by William Shakespeare, edited by Andrew S. Cairncross, xi-liv. The Arden Edition of the Works of William Shakespeare. London: Methuen & Co., 1969. Cairncross examines how Shakespeare organizes a complex and somewhat chaotic narrative inherited from chroniclers Holinshed and Hall.
Calderwood, James L. "Shakespeare's Evolving Imagery: 2 Henry VI." English Studies 48 (1967): 481-93. Calderwood explores the advancement of Shakespeare's imagery in 2 Henry VI, transitioning from rhetorical and static to more dynamic and revealing. He particularly focuses on four strands of imagery.
Carr, William M. "Animal Imagery in 2 Henry VI." English Studies 53 (October 1972): 408-12. Carr interprets the animal imagery as reinforcing the themes of predator, prey, and protector in the play.
Evans, B. Ifor. "The Early Histories." In The Language of Shakespeare's Plays, by B. Ifor Evans, 31-44. London: Methuen, 1952. Evans believes that the language used by Shakespeare in Henry VI, Part Two is more powerful than in Henry VI, Part One.
Friend, E. M., Jr. "The First Thing We'll Do, Let's Kill All the Lawyers.'" Alabama Lawyer 44 (September 1983): 276-77. Friend argues that Dick's remark in IV.ii of Henry VI, Part Two is a satirical nod to the essential role of lawyers in maintaining societal order.
Manheim, Michael. "Silence in the Henry VI Plays." Educational Theatre Journal 29 (March 1977): 70-76. Manheim examines III.ii of Henry VI, Part Two to support his argument that Henry VI's silence elevates him morally above the other main characters.
Price, Hereward T. Construction in Shakespeare. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1951. Argues that Shakespeare meticulously connects all causes of conflict to a weak ruler.
Riggs, David. "The Hero in History: 2 Henry VI." In Shakespeare's Heroical Histories: Henry VI and Its Literary Tradition, by David Riggs, 113-27. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971. Riggs argues that Henry VI, Part Two is the strongest part of the trilogy due to its diverse action and coherence.
Bibliography
Berry, Edward I. “2 Henry VI: Justice and Law.” In Patterns of Decay: Shakespeare’s Early Histories. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1975. Analyzes the play in the context of the whole of the trilogy. Addresses in the footnotes some of the negative criticism of earlier critics and recommends other critical analyses.
Blanpied, John W. Time and the Artist in Shakespeare’s English Histories. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1983. A chapter on Henry VI, Part II finds the play superior to Henry VI, Part I. Analyzes structure and characters.
Saccio, Peter. Shakespeare’s English Kings: History, Chronicle, and Drama. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977. Contains a section on Henry VI discussing the history as recounted in Shakespeare’s sources, as understood by twentieth century scholarship, and as it is dramatized in the plays. Includes genealogical charts and maps.
Tillyard, E. M. W. Shakespeare’s History Plays. London: Chatto & Windus, 1944. Praises the structure of Henry VI, Part II, defending it against negative criticism.
Turner, Robert K., and George Walton Williams. “The Second and Third Parts of King Henry the Sixth.” In William Shakespeare: The Complete Works, edited by Alfred Harbage. Rev. ed. New York: Viking Press, 1969. Useful introductory essay analyzes sources and style of the two plays, comparing them with Shakespeare’s later history plays.