Form and Content
Carson McCullers’ first novel, The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, explores what Nathaniel Hawthorne called “the labyrinth of the human heart.” Just as the spokes of a wheel revolve around a hub, the lives of Mick Kelly, Jake Blount, Dr. Benedict Mady Copeland, and Biff Brannon revolve around the deaf-mute John Singer.
The teenager, Mick, is the only character in the book who grows or changes; the sections that relate to her are a Bildungsroman that traces a young girl’s movement from the instinctive emotionalism of childhood, through the advent of preadolescence and awakening sexuality, to the final thrust of maturity that brings disillusionment in love. Mick’s first disappointing sexual experience with Harry West left her feeling very old, “a grown person now, whether she wanted to be or not.” She gravitates toward Singer, who serves as her god until his suicide brings an end to her dreams. She knows that she will never become a famous musician and instead goes to work ten hours a day in a ten-cent store to contribute to the family income. Her childhood is over.
In her outline of The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter—published first in Oliver Evans’ biography The Ballad of Carson McCullers (1965) and later in McCullers’ The Mortgaged Heart (1971)—McCullers states that the theme of her novel is “man’s revolt against his own inner isolation and his urge to express himself as fully as is possible.” The escape from isolation is through the expression of love, but love is seldom reciprocal, and it is doomed to failure—for women as well as for men. As Biff Brannon points out, “By nature all people are of both sexes. So marriage and the bed is not all by any means.”
The novel begins with a delineation of Singer’s love for another deaf-mute, the grossly fat and retarded Spiros Antonapoulos, and the opening lines of the novel focus on their relationship: “In the town there were two mutes, and they were always together.” Singer loves, indeed worships, Antonapoulos, and although he “never knew just how much his friend understood of all the things he told him, . . . it did not matter.” What matters in Singer’s life, and in that of the other major characters in the novel, is having a person to love, an all-too-human god to endow with qualities of compassion and understanding, though these traits exist only in the mind of the lover.
Singer finds himself isolated and alone when Antonapoulos is committed to the state institution. He visits Biff Brannon’s New York Café and meets Mick Kelly, Jake Blount, and Dr. Copeland, who believe that he is able to assuage their loneliness. They tell him their hearts’ desires, but when Antonapoulos dies, Singer has no reason to live and commits suicide. The other characters are likewise deprived of their beloved, and the altar of human “godliness” crumbles. The heart that is a lonely hunter is wrenched with pain.
Places Discussed
Southern town
Southern town. Unnamed town that provides the novel’s principal setting. The town is based on Columbus, Georgia, where Carson McCullers spent her formative years. McCullers left the South when she was seventeen and continued to express her hatred of the region, especially its racism, throughout her life. For example, she refused to donate her manuscripts to a library in Columbus, Georgia, because it was segregated. She also stated sarcastically that she had to revisit the South occasionally to renew her sense of horror. The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter is the only novel McCullers wrote while residing in the South.
Mick Kelley’s house
Mick Kelley’s...
(This entire section contains 497 words.)
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house. One of the biggest houses on the north side of town. Three stories tall, this large building is a boardinghouse in which some of the main characters reside. The house has a large front porch, where people gather to talk. The house needs repairs and painting and sags on one end. Its interior symbolizes the psychological and emotional states of the characters; the huge house often feels empty to the people who dwell in it, just as the people frequently feel lonely and isolated even though they are surrounded by others. Mr. Singer, the character in whom the other characters confide, rents a room from the Kelleys.
Mr. Singer’s room
Mr. Singer’s room. This room is small and has minimal furniture. There is a closet in the room, where Singer keeps wine and snacks for his guests. Jake Blount lives with Singer in this room when he first arrives in town. Dr. Copeland, Jake Blount, Mick Kelley, and Biff Brannon frequent Singer’s room to confide in him. Singer’s room is symbolic of his role in the novel: His guests feel comfortable sitting in his small room and confiding their secrets to him.
New York Café
New York Café. Restaurant near the Kelley’s house where locals go to eat and socialize. The main characters of the novel frequent the café, which Biff Brannon owns. Providing a place for community members to visit with each other, the café is typical of restaurants in southern communities.
African American neighborhood
African American neighborhood. Section of the unnamed town in which the black community resides. In this section of town, very small houses, some as small as two rooms, house up to fourteen people. Dr. Copeland, the black physician, treats this community and serves as its leader. Descriptions of the residences of Copeland’s patients are important because they illustrate that the town is segregated. McCullers depicts the poverty and disease that plague the blacks in the novel. African Americans are denied decent jobs and are treated cruelly and unjustly by some of the white characters in the novel. The novel addresses racism by showing the unjust treatment of blacks. If the southern town is a microcosm of southern towns in the 1930’s, McCullers is showing racism in the South as a whole during the 1930’s.
Context
Carson McCullers’ fictional concerns reflect her private confrontation with bisexuality, her feelings that she was “born a man.” Virginia Spencer Carr reports in her biography, The Lonely Hunter (1975) that “Carson . . . spoke of herself as an invert and wondered if she would ever know the love of a woman who might answer her multileveled needs.” McCullers said herself that she felt that her second novel, Reflections in a Golden Eye (1941) was the first open treatment of homosexuality in American literature.
Both Carson McCullers and the characters she created challenged the stereotypical notions of the Southern belle. Carr reports that Carson upset fellow writer Katherine Anne Porter by dressing in dungarees or men’s pants, a man’s white dress shirt buttoned at the top, and a boy’s jacket. Additionally, her female characters such as Mick and Frankie, in The Member of the Wedding (1946), have short-cropped hair and bear names as genderless as her own. As Biff Brannon points out in The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, “Mick looked as much like an overgrown boy as a girl. And on that subject why was it that the smartest people mostly missed that point? By nature all people are of both sexes.” McCullers denies the validity of erotic love between individuals, but she espouses agape, the humanitarian ideal that transcends love between the sexes and encompasses a love and feeling of responsibility for all humanity. Such love connects all people—those who work on a chain gang, such as the prisoners in The Ballad of the Sad Café (1951), and yet are able to sing, as well as those who believe they are freaks because they lack a strong identity as either male or female and are otherwise different.
McCullers confronted issues of sexuality in nontraditional ways and devised a “science of love” that would show the relationship between a man and a woman as a spiritual rather than a sexual communion. Her contribution to feminist literature is important in its representation and acceptance of relationships of difference rather than the typical heterosexual standards and values prevalent in the society of her time.
Historical Context
Fascism
At the beginning of the novel, Mick's political naivety is evident when she vandalizes a house under construction, including the name Mussolini alongside cartoon detective Dick Tracy and inventor Thomas Edison. During this period, Fascism was at its zenith globally. The term "Fascism" was introduced by Benito Mussolini during his ascent to power in Italy post-World War I, which concluded in 1918. Mussolini described Fascism as “organized concentrated authoritarian democracy on a national basis,” though most definitions also emphasize “totalitarianism” and “authoritarianism.” Fascism differs from Democracy as it grants the government control over every aspect of citizens' lives. It contrasts with Communism by prioritizing the nation over the worker as the central focus of life. In the South, states exploited the “separate but equal” doctrine to enact “Jim Crow laws” ensuring racial segregation. However, the "equal" aspect was rarely enforced. Black schools and medical facilities were underfunded, and blacks were relegated to balcony seats in theaters and denied access to premier restaurants and hotels. Even prominent blacks faced discrimination, while whites could freely access places from which blacks were barred. Early in the novel, Jake Blount, in a drunken stupor, believes he is doing Dr. Copeland a favor by bringing him into a café and offering him a drink, despite being told, “Don’t you know you can’t bring no nigger in a place where white men drink?” Dr. Copeland feels humiliated by Blount's patronizing behavior. The enforcement of segregation laws was often brutal. With almost no political influence in the South, blacks endured legal mistreatment from any white person, regardless of their social standing, as depicted when Dr. Copeland, a respected community figure, is assaulted by a deputy sheriff displeased with his demeanor. The legal system rarely favored blacks, fearing that acknowledging any civil rights might lead to demands for more. In 1848, with Capitalism firmly established worldwide and the Industrial Revolution in full swing, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published The Communist Manifesto. They argued that the free-market economy divided society into two groups: the wealthy who owned production means and the laborers who worked for them, effectively enslaving the workers. They urged workers to unite. In the early 20th century, Socialism gained popularity globally, and in 1917, the Communist Revolution took over Russia. Generally, Socialism advocates for change within the governmental system, while Communism supports revolutionary overthrow. In Italy, Communism attracted the impoverished, who suffered from a post-war economic collapse that rendered their currency nearly worthless. Property owners feared losing their assets to Communism, and many middle-class citizens associated it with anarchy. Mussolini, once a Socialist, gained support from those feeling powerless due to the economic downturn and were drawn to the Fascist party's strong nationalist rhetoric. His ascent was fueled by promises to restore order and the violent actions of Fascist thugs in black shirts who targeted socialists through murder and arson. In 1922, Socialist-targeted violence led to a national transportation strike. Mussolini used this turmoil to seize governmental power, gaining public approval by resolving transportation issues. Between 1925 and 1930, he transformed his government control into a dictatorship, exerting absolute authority over media and every facet of citizens' lives. Concurrently, similar forces were at play in Germany, where Hitler leveraged the promise of order, the threat of Communism, and animosity toward perceived "outsiders" (Jews, blacks, Catholics, and Gypsies) to establish the Nazi regime.
Segregation
In 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court made a significant decision in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, declaring it lawful for states and cities to separate blacks and whites in public spaces, provided they offered “separate but equal” facilities. This ruling allowed for laws that barred blacks from dining at establishments frequented by whites. Outside of the legal system, the Ku Klux Klan, a group of native-born white Protestant men, committed atrocious acts against nonwhites, non-Protestants, and immigrants while disguising themselves in robes and hoods. Originating in Georgia in 1915, the Klan was modeled after a similar group from the post-Civil War era. They used intimidation tactics such as breaking windows, conducting public cross-burnings, and engaging in kidnappings and lynchings. Authorities often claimed they were powerless to stop the Klan, although their masked identities frequently served as a convenient excuse to ignore their activities. During World War II, from 1941 to 1945, Southern blacks experienced a glimpse of equality. They visited European nations where segregation laws were absent, and although not entirely equitable, the U.S. Armed Forces had blacks and whites working together. By the 1950s, anti-racist sentiments had grown so strong that legal changes became necessary. In 1954, the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas ruled that separate schools were inherently unequal, mandating the admission of blacks into all-white schools. This integration extended to other areas, effectively overturning the Plessy decision.
Literary Style
Grotesque
The concept of the grotesque has been a persistent theme in American literature, appearing in the works of authors like Melville, Hawthorne, and Poe. This theme may be linked to the democratic political system, which prioritizes the individual over the group. In twentieth-century literature, the grotesque is often connected with Southern writers such as William Faulkner and Flannery O’Connor. Simply put, "grotesque" refers to stories that depict characters with exaggerated traits or characteristics, using these traits to represent their entire personality. McCullers once stated that "Love, and especially love of a person who is incapable of returning or receiving it, is at the heart of my selection of grotesque figures to write about—people whose physical incapacity is a symbol of their spiritual incapacity to love or receive love—their spiritual isolation." This description aptly fits John Singer in the novel, a character adored by all other main characters but who remains bewildered by their affections. The first chapter introduces the world Singer inhabits—a world where he and his friend Antonapoulos live together, commute to work side by side, and spend their evenings quietly playing chess. Due to his "physical incapacity," specifically his deafness, Singer's world remains largely unchanged, even after his friend moves away and new characters enter his life. With Singer serving as the clearest example of the grotesque in the story, the other characters also possess conditions that, while less visible, equally impair their emotional capabilities: Dr. Copeland’s tuberculosis makes him anxious about completing work he deems important; Jake Blount’s alcoholism turns nearly every meaningful conversation into a rant; Biff Brannon’s androgyny, which some critics attribute to impotence, leaves him self-satisfied and disconnected from others; and Mick’s emerging adolescence traps her in a limbo between childhood and adulthood, diverting her from her passion for music until financial constraints potentially remove that option forever.
Structure
This book diverges from the conventional novel format, which typically employs a systematic approach to illustrate how the main characters' lives intersect and impact one another. By traditional measures, it might appear chaotic or even unrestrained. The narratives of the five main characters unfold simultaneously, making it challenging for readers to single out one as more significant than the others. The novel's structure is inspired by musical theory, with its three parts organized similarly to a fugue. The first section begins with Singer’s narrative alone, akin to a musical solo, gradually interweaving other voices in balanced increments. These voices interact and create distinct harmonies, concluding once more with Singer. In Singer’s sections, where dialogue is absent, the story relies entirely on narrative, imparting a serene and contemplative atmosphere to these outer chapters. The second section, comprising fifteen chapters, is more dynamic. It focuses on one character per chapter, complicating their lives with struggles and hardships, akin to the rich, full sound of a complete orchestra. It continues to follow various individual threads but with increased intensity. This section culminates in the novel's climactic event—John Singer’s suicide. The third section serves as a coda, introducing no new themes but revisiting each of the four remaining characters, confirming that they ultimately follow the paths hinted at earlier. This section is uniquely divided into quarters, segmenting a single day, August 21, 1939, into morning, afternoon, evening, and night. It echoes Singer’s isolation at the end when Biff Brannon calls out to his assistant and receives no reply. The novel's design, based on a musical form, reflects both Carson McCullers' musical training and Mick's desire for such training within the story. It also highlights the irony of the music playing on the radio in the deaf man's room.
Literary Techniques
McCullers often writes with a keen focus on detail, which is a hallmark of realistic fiction. She effectively captures the unique essence of early adolescence, characterized by a rich fantasy life. However, there are also subtler hints of allegory. For example, the structured portrayal of Singer's four admirers, who come from diverse cultural backgrounds, suggests that their unique connection with Singer reflects a universal human tendency. Biff Brannon's reflections sometimes offer interpretation, such as when he observes, "Blount and Mick made of him a sort of homemade God." At times, McCullers nearly loses track of the intended irony in the religious themes. Singer's divine attributes are meant to be illusions born from his friends' psychological needs. Yet occasionally, the narrative voice seems to adopt this illusion, as when the author describes Mr. Singer with "the look of peace that is seen most often in those who are very wise or very sorrowful." In other instances, she maintains a clearer grasp of the ironic truth that Singer is not particularly wise and is, in fact, quite bewildered by those who expect him to comprehend the complexities of labor unions, race relations, and classical music.
Compare and Contrast
1940: England and France were engaged in warfare against Germany, Italy, and Japan. Later that year, Germany occupied France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Norway, and Romania. The United States, however, did not enter World War II until the bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941.
Today: Having risen to the status of a global superpower as a result of World War II, the United States is now highly likely to be involved in any significant international conflict.
1940: The inaugural Social Security checks were sent to Americans, with the first distribution to retirees totaling $75,844.
Today: After decades of contributions from workers, the Social Security Administration now disburses nearly $400 billion annually.
1940: Plutonium, the radioactive element that powered the nuclear bombs used to conclude World War II in 1945, was discovered for the first time.
Today: With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there is concern that the nuclear weapons they accumulated from the 1940s to the 1990s could end up in the hands of terrorists.
1940: In the southern United States, segregation laws prohibited blacks and whites from dining or drinking together, staying in the same hotels, or using public transportation together. Meanwhile, the Nazi persecution of European Jews highlighted governmental endorsement of racial animosity.
Today: Due to the advancements in civil rights during the 1950s and 1960s, some groups now claim that minorities receive excessive privileges.
1940: Most Americans owned radios that provided news and entertainment. Although television broadcasting debuted at the 1939 World’s Fair in New York, only about 100 to 200 sets existed. World War II hindered further development of television. A decade later, only nine percent of U.S. households had a television, but two decades later, this number soared to 85 percent.
Today: Television's widespread popularity has given rise to a market with literally hundreds of networks, catering to diverse preferences.
Literary Precedents
While certain aspects of this novel might have been inspired by previous works, the central concept of a deaf mute who unintentionally becomes everything to everyone is truly original. The idea of a diverse group of individuals coming together through a shared experience to highlight a universal aspect of human nature has certainly been explored before. For example, one might think of the four men from different cultural backgrounds or social classes stranded in a lifeboat in Stephen Crane's "The Open Boat." Southern literature also features its share of characters with intellectual disabilities, with Benjy from Faulkner's The Sound and the Fury (1929) being perhaps the most well-known.
Adaptations
The film adaptation of The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter premiered in 1968. Alan Arkin played the role of the deaf-mute character, Singer, and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor. Sondra Locke also earned a nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of Singer's friend. Both Stacy Keach and Cicely Tyson delivered strong performances in this exceptional movie.
In 1963, Edward Albee penned a play based on The Ballad of the Sad Cafe.
Media Adaptations
The 1968 movie adaptation of The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, featuring a screenplay by Thomas C. Ryan and directed by Robert Ellis Miller, was made available on video by Warner Brothers in 1985.
In 1952, MGM Records released an audio LP disc called Carson McCullers Reads from The Member of the Wedding and Other of Her Works.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Virginia Spencer Carr, Understanding Carson McCullers, Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1990.
Rose Feld, "A Remarkable First Novel of Lonely Lives," New York Times Book Review, June 16, 1940, p. 6.
David Madden, "Transfixed among the Self-Inflicted Ruins: Carson McCullers’ The Mortgaged Heart," Southern Literary Journal, Vol. 5, Fall, 1972, pp. 137-162.
May Sarton, "Pitiful Hunt for Security: Tragedy of Unfulfillment Theme of Story That Will Rank High in American Letters," Boston Evening Telegraph, June 8, 1940, pp. IV-1.
Tennessee Williams, "This Book," Reflections in a Golden Eye, by Carson McCullers, New York: New Directions, 1950.
Richard Wright, "Inner Landscape," The New Republic, Vol. 103, August 5, 1940, p. 195.
Marguerite Young, "Metaphysical Fiction," Kenyon Review, Vol. IX, No. 1, Winter, 1947.
Further Study
Richard M. Cook, Carson McCullers, Ungar, 1975. Cook dedicates twenty-five pages to examining the novel's central themes and characters.
Oliver Evans, The Ballad of Carson McCullers: A Biography, Coward McCann, 1966. Released during McCullers’ lifetime, this book includes the initial outline of the novel, "Author’s Outline of The Mute" (the original title of The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter). A crucial resource for students studying this work.
Lawrence Graver, "Penumbral Insistence: McCullers’s Early Novels," in Carson McCullers, edited and introduced by Harold Bloom, Chelsea House Publishers, 1986, pp. 53-67. Graver provides a succinct and insightful analysis of the characters in this novel, as well as those in Reflections in a Golden Eye and The Ballad of the Sad Cafe.
Margaret McDowell, Carson McCullers, Twayne, 1980. McDowell divides her examination of the novel into several themes: "Isolation as Man’s Fate," "The Quartet— the 'Spokes of the Wheel,'" "The Use of Black Characters," "A 'Contrapuntal' Novel," and "The Sense of Violence Held Tenuously in Check."
Louise Westling, Sacred Groves and Ravaged Gardens: The Fiction of Eudora Welty, Carson McCullers, and Flannery O’Connor, University of Georgia Press, 1985. This book investigates how Southern culture has influenced the writings of female authors, an aspect often overlooked in traditional male-focused literary criticism.