myth, and ultimately, everyone's real ending is death. By satirizing romantic fiction, where a man and woman find complete fulfillment in their shared lives, Atwood questions the societal values underpinning such fabrications and the techniques authors use to craft these tales.

Point of View and Tone

Atwood utilizes two distinct perspectives in "Happy Endings." One is the third-person omniscient point of view (that of an all-knowing narrator). This perspective allows Atwood to comment freely on any character or event in the story. It also enables her to use any character as a lens for interpreting events. Atwood employs this point of view to illustrate the various versions of John and Mary's relationship, as well as those involving Madge and Fred. In these sections, the fundamental events of these relationships and some insights into the characters' thoughts and motivations are presented. For example, the reader discovers how the characters feel about each other and the reasons behind their relationships.

Atwood also utilizes a second-person perspective, addressing the reader directly. This approach both begins the story ("If you want a happy ending, try A.") and concludes it. Yet, by the end of "Happy Endings," the change in tone takes precedence over the change in perspective. Rather than crafting a narrative, Atwood engages with the reader about the writing process itself. She greatly simplifies writing by stating that a plot is merely "one thing after another, a what and a what and a what."

Tense

"Happy Endings" is composed in the present tense, highlighting the timeless nature of Atwood's message. The pursuit of a happy ending has been a longstanding aspiration for authors and will likely remain so, despite writers like Atwood who skeptically highlight the challenge of achieving this goal while maintaining realism. The present tense is a powerful technique in Atwood’s direct communication with the reader, making her message appear more immediate, pressing, and intimate.

Postmodern authors have elevated the self-awareness and self-reflection found in earlier avant-garde and expressionist movements to new levels of significance and utility. Among these authors, Atwood stands out as a masterful literary artist employing this technique. In numerous works, including "Happy Endings," she frequently reminds readers that they are engaging with a crafted narrative, highlighting that literature is a deliberate arrangement of words and images. She suggests that becoming engrossed in a story is akin to experiencing a temporary psychological escape, similar to sleeping or a brief cessation of consciousness. Atwood prompts readers to scrutinize their own lives through the experiences of her characters, encourages them to pay attention to the writing itself, and discourages any full suspension of disbelief. This style is often referred to as "metafiction."

Mary McCarthy, in her review of Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale (1985) for the New York Times Book Review, criticized the plot as "untenable." Naturally, it is. The novel represents artistic science fiction intended to convey aesthetic and political messages. Atwood does not assert that she creates realistic fiction or that her plots must always be entirely logical. Her aim is originality, seeking to create rather than replicate, which makes her a bold and daring writer who is not always successful. Nevertheless, she remains dedicated to her craft and to human rights. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, philosophy is essentially a struggle against being "bewitched by words" (Philosophical Investigations, 1953). Atwood, in "Happy Endings" and beyond, demonstrates her deep engagement with this struggle, particularly in terms of language being wielded as a political instrument for control or appeasement. She implicitly argues, echoing Karl Marx, that most mainstream fiction serves as an opiate for the masses.

To achieve her objectives of enlightening, entertaining, and awakening her audience, Atwood employs postmodern techniques such as commenting on the unfolding action; using a dry, deadpan narrative style reminiscent of Joan Didion's, which both shocks and distances the reader from the events; and juxtaposing satire with seemingly realistic scenarios, such as when she remarks on "the kind of a woman" Mary is while the character is engaged in the act of suicide.

In "Happy Endings," Atwood also trivializes the frequently tragic plots by presenting them as if they were options on a Chinese menu. This alternative plotting is now common in Internet novels, where hyperlinks can transport readers to detailed backgrounds or entirely different narratives. In this respect, "Happy Endings" is both a continuation of radical movements like Dada and a precursor to contemporary online experimentation.

Margaret Atwood frequently uses a subtle technique by incorporating the second-person perspective ("you") to engage readers and provide instructions or reminders about specific points. She confidently employs commands where the "you" is implied, such as in the concluding line of "Happy Endings": "Now try How and Why." This approach can be overused, leading to a tone that feels overly instructional. However, Atwood skillfully integrates just the right amount of commands to enhance her writing, making her use of the second person particularly impactful in her poetry. Those familiar with the innovative prose poems of Charles Simic might even consider some narratives in "Happy Endings" to be akin to prose poetry.

Atwood, who is known for her love of irony, also employs this familiar literary device to add depth and amplify the emotional resonance of her short stories. The most ironic element of "Happy Endings" is arguably its title, as none of the stories concludes with a traditionally happy ending. Even story "A," which Atwood suggests for those who favor happy conclusions, ends with the main characters passing away.

Margaret Atwood is often described as "the reigning superstar of Canadian literature," a phrase she reportedly dislikes. Despite the global recognition she has received, she frequently attempts to distance herself from being labeled solely as a feminist author. Instead, she wishes to be acknowledged as a distinguished writer who explores themes such as gender roles and the oppression of women, among other subjects. Critic Richard T. Marin, writing for the American Spectator, argues that in the 1970s and early 1980s, Atwood primarily focused on "women as victims—a theme that was to become her obsession" (January 1987). However, in her poetry, fiction, and critical essays, Atwood also portrays men as victims and strives to show how both genders can avoid victimization.

Beyond an early unsuccessful marriage, Atwood has chosen what many describe as an alternative lifestyle, opting for a long-term partnership with novelist Graeme Gibson instead of traditional marriage. They share a daughter, Jess, and two sons, Matthew and Graeme Jr. Some critics suggest that her feminist perspective deters her from entering the patriarchal institution of marriage. Atwood, however, counters this by stating that her decision not to marry is merely "sloppiness" and, after living together for so long, she and Gibson see no reason to "make a big production out of it" by getting married (News Journal, April 30, 1985). At 61, Atwood shows no inclination to alter her views on marriage or her prolific writing pace.

1. What elements of "Happy Endings" could be considered "feminist," and why?

2. Although feminism is only a part of her philosophy, how much does Atwood's feminist perspective influence your perception of her work?

3. If "Happy Endings" had been written by a man, how might it differ? Explain why or why not it would be different.

4. Does focusing on gender differences detract from the essence of a literary work, or does it enhance its meaning? Discuss how either scenario might occur.

5. In what ways do the expectations readers bring to literature reflect the preconceived notions people have about life itself?

6. How might the self-referential, metafictional style of "Happy Endings" and similar postmodern works leave some readers feeling unsatisfied? Would their feelings be justified? Why or why not?

7. Is "Happy Endings" truly a short story? Which elements of your personal definition of short fiction does it fulfill, and which aspects does it lack?

8. If "Happy Endings" unsettles you, does that imply it is not fulfilling? How closely does fiction need to adhere to traditional forms to be successful as art?

Margaret Atwood, the celebrated winner of the Booker Prize for her novel The Blind Assassin (2000), has been a towering figure in Canadian literature for her innovative and intricate fiction, poetry, and critical essays. Her work, Survival: A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature (1972), continues to serve as an essential resource for both scholars and students. Atwood's stories and poems frequently center on either strong or oppressed female protagonists, which has led many critics to label her a feminist—a label that, early in her career, contributed to her marginalization. Despite this, Atwood has consistently rejected the notion of having a singular political agenda during interviews. She prefers to be recognized as a writer who happens to be female, with social concerns more closely aligned with Amnesty International than with the National Organization of Women. In essence, Atwood is more engaged in human rights issues than solely women's liberation, though feminism remains a component of her diverse ideology.

True to her style, Atwood's "Happy Endings" delivers sharp, albeit concise, commentary on the entrenched and widespread rigidity of male and female social roles, and how these stereotypes can hinder girls and women. The text even states, "Freedom isn't the same for girls." However, in "Happy Endings," Atwood's primary focus is on challenging literary stereotypes and expectations. The story is a commentary on storytelling itself, containing multiple narratives like perfectly nested Russian dolls. While it ostensibly addresses endings, Atwood unravels the art of storytelling as a whole, delving into the complexities of what constitutes an ending. Her remarkable talent and ambition are evident as she not only crafts cutting-edge postmodern fiction but also investigates the nature of fiction itself. "Happy Endings" serves as a critique of the conventional constraints that both writers and readers impose on popular fiction.

The central social issue addressed is the subtle impact of accepted literary conventions and the fairy-tale culture prevalent in mainstream bestsellers, a culture that demands conformity to expectations and the illusion of a "happily ever after." This idyllic bubble, like all bubbles, eventually bursts. As Ernest Hemingway noted in Death in the Afternoon (1932), any story prolonged enough becomes tragic. Atwood bluntly states, "The only authentic ending is the one provided here: John and Mary die. John and Mary die. John and Mary die." Atwood's directness is unmistakable.

While critiquing fairy-tale and formulaic fiction, Atwood also addresses several other issues. These include the toxic consequences of infidelity, the corrupt motivations and middle-class values, the impact of changing real estate prices on people's lives, the negative effects of aging, and the human inclination to judge others, particularly based on appearance. For instance, in one of the mini-stories, John finds himself in a disastrous relationship with a younger woman and comes to the realization that "he's middle-aged, in two years he'll be bald as an egg and he can't stand it. He purchases a handgun."

1980s: Midway through the decade, Canada's population is approximately 26 million, with around 18 million Canadians being married.

Today: The current population of Canada is about 31 million, and among them, 14.5 million Canadians are married.

1980s: In 1981, 8.2 million Canadians reside in private homes, with the average household size being 2.9 members.

Today: By 1996, 10.8 million Canadians live in private residences, and the average household consists of 2.6 members.

1980s: By the late 1980s, female employees earn, on average, 59 percent of the income earned by male employees.

Today: In 1998, women workers earn an average of 64 percent of what their male counterparts earn.

1980s: By the end of the 1980s, in husband-wife families, 62.8 percent are dual-earner households, 22.8 percent have a single earner, and 14.4 percent have neither spouse working.

Today: In 1998, among husband-wife families, 60.4 percent are dual-earner households, 22.5 percent have a single earner, and 17.1 percent have neither spouse earning an income.

The most apparent inspiration for the self-referential, metafictional style found in "Happy Endings" is "Lost in the Funhouse," the humorously touching title story from John Barth's 1968 short fiction collection. Other notable works include Richard Brautigan's surreal novel A Confederate General from Big Sur (1964), which concludes with a chapter called "2,000 Endings Per Second," and Edward Albee's absurdist one-act play, The Sandbox (1960), where characters Mommy and Daddy notice "an off-stage rumble," and the Young Man reveals that "the studio" has yet to assign him a name. Albee has argued that realism is the literary form that should truly be considered absurd—an aesthetic perspective seemingly shared by Atwood.

Self-reflexive literature draws attention to itself, creating a unique tension for the reader, suggesting that something unusual is occurring, disrupting a revered, perhaps idolized, pattern. Sophisticated readers may find this postmodern writing invigorating as it challenges established ideas of acceptability, suggesting that without such examination, innovation is impossible. Atwood and others highlight this questioning rather than subtly embedding it within the text, which can be perceived as either refreshing or annoying, depending on the reader's preferences. Undoubtedly, this style of writing can be both stimulating and demanding.

Barth's "Lost in the Funhouse" exemplifies this style with exceptional flair and emotional impact, earning its place as an American classic. While narrating the story of the unfortunate young Ambrose, Barth intermittently pauses to pose questions about the narrative and to discuss the craft of fiction. He asks, "Is it likely," regarding the story, "does it violate the principles of verisimilitude?" By posing such questions, Barth is intentionally breaching these principles, serving a purpose. He seems to suggest that literature should not merely be a funhouse in which one becomes lost.

Closely associated with "Happy Endings" are the stories found alongside it in the third section of Murder in the Dark. These include the title story, "Simmering," "Women's Novels," "Bread," and "The Page." Atwood's body of work forms a seamless continuum, with all her writings interconnected in some way. Her bold, distinctive style and the intense themes she explores have remained consistent since the start of her literary journey. For instance, in The Blind Assassin, stories nest within stories, and there is a strong opposition to oppression and deceit, themes evident throughout Atwood's work starting with her first poetry collection, Double Persephone (1961).

"Murder in the Dark" portrays the writer as a character who might be a murderer, drawing a parallel between literature and a seemingly innocuous yet potentially lethal game. Atwood notes, "The thing about this game," she writes, "is that you have to know when to stop."

In "Simmering," Atwood flips conventional male and female roles, depicting men obsessed with cooking and women engrossed in business. The speaker/writer self-reflectively comments: "It is subversive of me even to write these words. I am doing so, at the risk of my own personal freedom." Despite this exaggerated sense of danger, the story stands out as one of the book’s most humorous.

"Women's Novels" offers a series of witty yet impactful statements on literature: "Women's novels are about men. . . . Men's novels are about how to get power. . . . What do you think all that kneeling's about. . . ?" The title may be inspired by a critic's blurb on the paperback version of Surfacing, which categorizes the book as "a woman's novel."

"Bread" functions more as a writing exercise than a traditional story. Atwood transforms a positive, comforting image into something unsettling with a distinct and varied history. She directly asks the reader, "Can you eat it? You don't want to know, imagine that."

The story most closely linked to "Happy Endings" is "The Page," a compelling reflection on writing featuring vivid imagery: "The page is not a pool but a skin. . . . You touch the page, . . . a sinuous wound opens, a thin incision. Darkness wells through."

Good Bones and Simple Murders (1994) includes the third section of Murder in the Dark along with other similar stories. For instance, "Unpopular Gals" concludes with a revelation and a cautionary note: "I'm the plot, babe, and don't ever forget it."

Murder in the Dark was narrated by Atwood for an audiobook edition, which Coach House Press released in 1989 as part of their Coach House Talking Books series, specifically as number 6. This audiobook was reissued in 1994.

Sources

Cameron, Elspeth, “In Darkest Atwood,” published in Saturday Night, Vol. 1, No. 7, April 1984, pages 12–13.

Carrington, Ildikó de Papp, “Dark Designs,” featured in Women’s Review of Books, Vol. 98, No. 3, March 1983, pages 70, 72.

Chase, K., Review of Murder in the Dark, in World Literature Today, Winter 1985, page 101.

Mezei, Kathy, Review of Murder in the Dark, in West Coast Review, Vol. 18, No. 2, October 1983, pages 51–52.

Seaman, Donna, Review of Good Bones and Simple Murders, in Booklist, Vol. 91, No. 5, November 1, 1994, page 458.

Further Reading

Atwood, Margaret, Margaret Atwood: Conversations, edited by Earl G. Ingersoll, Ontario Review Press, 1990. This book compiles twenty-one interviews with Atwood from 1972 to 1989.

———, “Then and Now: Canada’s Premier Woman of Letters Takes a Razor-Sharp Look at the State of Canadian Literature,” in Macleans, July 1, 1999, page 54. In this essay, Atwood examines Canadian literature.

Morris, Mary, “The Art of Fiction,” in Biblio, December 1998, page 24. This interview features Atwood discussing the elements of a successful short story, emphasizing rhythm and language.

Stein, Karen F., Margaret Atwood Revisited, Twayne Publishers, 1999. This book offers an overview of Atwood’s literary work.

Wilson, Sharon R., Thomas B. Friedman, and Shannon Hengen, eds., Approaches to Teaching Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” and Other Works, Modern Language Association, 1996. This collection includes twenty-three essays exploring the influences on Atwood’s writing career, her major works, criticism, and teaching resources.