Themes: Geographic Failure
Diamond also focuses on the opposite side of his major theme. Instead of concentrating just on how and why societies succeed, he explores why societies fail and how those failures become permanent if certain environmental conditions are not met. Societies that are forced to be hunters and gatherers because of the geography in which they live will always be at a disadvantage. Another condition that marks a group of people for failure is the inability to create a sufficiently dense population. This might be due to an unfavorable climate or to an insufficient supply of essential raw materials. A successful community also needs to be able to domesticate crops and animals; without doing so, the community will never progress to the next level—farming. One of the elements that allows for successful farming is the presence of large-seed crops. Wheat, for example, grows in a wide variety. The most productive and the most easily cultivated is a form of wheat that has a large seed, which provides one of the most basic food products—flour. If the large-seed variety does not grow in the vicinity of a particular society and it will not grow there even if the seed is provided from an outside source, the society will not progress. The same conditions apply for the domestication of animals. Being able to domesticate animals provides a society with much-needed labor as well as a source of food. Raising chickens, for example, is a much more certain source of eggs than having to look for the eggs of wild birds. But if chickens cannot be raised within a society, then the time-consuming aspects of hunting and gathering will have to remain.
Expert Q&A
Why do New Guinea's inhabitants struggle to survive?
According to Guns, Germs, and Steel by Jared Diamond, people in New Guinea have struggled to survive not because of lack of ability but because of environmental conditions. These include the poor nutritional quality of native plants, the lack of large animals suitable for domestication, the rugged terrain that makes agriculture and settlements difficult, and the isolation of New Guinea from its neighbors.
What are the barriers to diffusion according to Guns, Germs, and Steel?
In Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond identifies several barriers to diffusion, primarily focusing on geographical and climatic factors. Latitude is a major barrier, as changes in climate hinder the north-south spread of crops. Topographical and ecological barriers, such as mountains, deserts, and jungles, also impede diffusion. Diamond argues that Eurasia's east-west axis facilitated easier diffusion of agriculture and technology compared to regions like Africa and the Americas, which faced more significant barriers.
The one-sided nature of disease exchange between the Old and New Worlds
The one-sided nature of disease exchange between the Old and New Worlds refers to the fact that European explorers and colonizers brought numerous deadly diseases, such as smallpox and measles, to the Americas, which devastated Indigenous populations. In contrast, the New World transmitted relatively few diseases back to Europe, with syphilis being a notable exception.
The reasoning behind slow-spreading diseases being the oldest in human history according to Guns, Germs, and Steel
In Guns, Germs, and Steel, slow-spreading diseases are considered the oldest in human history because they could persist in small, scattered populations. These diseases often had prolonged incubation periods and chronic phases, allowing them to spread gradually and remain within human communities over extended periods, unlike fast-spreading diseases requiring larger, denser populations to sustain transmission.
Analysis of Diamond's argument refuting that Australia's fate is due to people, not environment in Guns, Germs, and Steel
Jared Diamond argues in Guns, Germs, and Steel that Australia's historical development was primarily influenced by environmental factors rather than human actions. He contends that the continent's geographic isolation, lack of domesticable plants and animals, and challenging climate significantly shaped its societies, undermining the notion that human choices were the main determinants of Australia's fate.
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