Style and Technique
One of the most important components of technique in “Guests of the Nation” is Frank O’Connor’s masterful use of irony. An early instance of irony, apart from the story’s title and the repetition of the word “chum” (underlining the failure of friendship in the plot), is the reference to the Irish dances that Belcher and Hawkins have learned, whose titles (“The Walls of Limerick,” “The Siege of Ennis”) allude to divisiveness, violence, and war, which undercut the harmony of the social occasion. Further, the narrator’s word to describe the timbre of Belcher’s speech, “peaceable,” ironically contrasts with the reason the British soldiers are kept captive, as well as their fate.
Indeed, ironies run throughout the story: The two soldiers executed are among the most congenial to the country and its culture; the religious doubter Hawkins is the first to discover the truths about the afterlife (by being the first killed); Belcher is so considerate of his executioners that just before he is shot he asks their forgiveness for his sudden outpouring of talk, explains his thoughtful wish to speed things up because he knows the delay is painful to them, and finally absolves them all with consoling words. Finally Belcher’s blindfold, made by knotting his handkerchief with Bonaparte’s, ironically symbolizes the union that should have prevented Belcher’s pitiful death, while it is also connected to the story’s motif of blindness—to human community and to the twists of fate, summarized in the repeated key word “unforeseen.”
Historical Context
Irish Rebellion
The history of Ireland is marked by British domination and conflict between
Protestants and Catholics. In the nineteenth century, efforts were made to
diminish British control over the island, leading to a revolutionary movement
aimed at achieving full independence from Britain. The urgency of these
rebellions was further intensified by the potato famine and other crop
failures. The Fenian Movement, partially represented in the story by Feeney,
was a secret society committed to undermining English interests in Ireland to
drive them out of the country.
These movements gained prominence at the end of World War I. Despite several political acts by the English Parliament attempting to establish home rule for the Irish, the Irish Rebellion erupted in full force. Many local police officers resigned in protest against the British, leading to the recruitment of new forces known as the Black and Tans. These militias were notorious for their brutality and ruthlessness. This is the backdrop for the story. After several years of "The Troubles," the British representative Winston Churchill threatened an all-out war to subdue the Irish. Michael Collins agreed to partition the country, granting independence to the south of Ireland. The Irish Free State was established in 1922. Many Irish felt betrayed by Collins during these negotiations, and he was assassinated shortly after.
The northern six counties, collectively known as Ulster, were excluded from the new national boundaries and are now known as Northern Ireland. It is here that the "Troubles" persisted, marked by political and military confrontations. In 1998, a promise of peace emerged when the British government, the Irish government, and the warring factions in Northern Ireland signed an accord establishing a framework for democratic solutions to the ongoing disputes.
Frank O’Connor lived during the Irish Rebellion and the establishment of the Irish Free State. These experiences profoundly influenced his views on his homeland and the nature of warfare. He was a lifelong advocate for Ireland and Irish culture. Even after relocating to the United States, he continued to write about Ireland. He once remarked, "I prefer to write about...
(This entire section contains 538 words.)
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Ireland and Irish people because I know to a syllable how everything in Ireland can be said." However, his stance that war is irrational and barbaric remained unchanged.
O’Connor and His Literary Contemporaries
Frank O’Connor was part of a group of Irish authors born in the late nineteenth
century and early twentieth century. This group includes Daniel Corkery, AE
(George Russell), W. B. Yeats, Samuel Beckett, and James Joyce. Among these,
Yeats, Beckett, and Joyce are the most renowned. O’Connor was friends with
these writers and frequently learned writing techniques and adopted literary
approaches from them. AE was the first to suggest that he write a biography of
Michael Collins. Yeats is celebrated for his poetry, Joyce and Beckett for
their novels, and O’Connor for his short stories. ‘‘Readers were more than
likely charmed by the deceptively simple manner of his writing, particularly
those stories of childhood and adolescence for which he is best known,’’ says
James Matthews in The Dictionary of Irish Literature. O’Connor’s
emphasis on short fiction initially limited his recognition, as many literary
critics hesitated to include a short story writer among novelists and
poets.
Literary Style
Dialects and Writing Practices
One of the lesser-known aspects of any writer's approach to their craft is the
significant amount of time and attention devoted to revising and rewriting. A
glance at a working draft of a poem by John Keats reveals intense
crisscrossing, additions and deletions, and the rearranging of lines and text
that eventually culminate in the final poem. For most writers, this process
happens privately, and once published, the work remains stable and unchanged.
This is not the case for Frank O’Connor. As William Maxwell noted, "He rewrote
and rewrote. After he was published, he rewrote and was republished. Everything
he wrote was an unfinished work, not so much because of any dissatisfaction,
but because of the pleasure he got out of a story. He liked his stories."
Consequently, multiple versions of the same story exist in print. Additionally,
as Ellmann points out, these stories sometimes have different titles.
There are several editions of "Guests of the Nation." In an early version, the Englishmen speak in a pronounced Cockney dialect. The two Englishmen are named "Awkins and Belcher." Hawkins says, "Well, Bonaparte, Mary Brigid Ho’Connell was arskin abaout you and said ow you’d a pair of socks belonging to er young brother." In another passage when they discuss angels, Hawkins says in the Cockney dialect, "Where do they get them then? Who makes them? Ave they a fact’ry for wings? Ave they a sort of store where you ands in your chit and tikes your bleedin’ wings? Answer me that." However, in later versions, O’Connor softened this passage by using more standard English and omitting the final three-word sentence.
In the current version, O’Connor uses words that reflect the characters' dialects. The Englishmen refer to their new friends as "Chums." The fact that the Irish also use this term is unusual, as the narrator notes. Donovan’s Irish dialect is also evident when he says, "Ah, you divil, Why didn’t you play the tray?" The dialectical use of the word "unforeseen," meaning "inconsiderate" or "unthinking," as Michael Libermann explains, also highlights the local Irish dialect.
Point of View and Narration
The story is narrated in the first person by Bonaparte, a member of the small
rebel faction. This perspective allows us to see only his viewpoint of the
events. The reader cannot know what others are thinking unless they speak and
Bonaparte relays it to us. For instance, in the final scene, he comments on his
reactions to the executions and also recounts what Noble has said about
them.
In some narratives, it's crucial to observe the narrator's actions and words, as they might not be truthful. In numerous stories by Edgar Allan Poe, the narrator frequently attempts to persuade the reader that he is NOT insane, despite evidence suggesting otherwise. However, in the case of Bonaparte, there is no indication that he is dishonest. There is nothing that casts doubt on his trustworthiness, making Bonaparte a reliable and believable narrator.
Episodic Structure
The story is divided into four episodes, each serving a distinct purpose. The
first section is the exposition, where the characters are introduced
individually and then shown interacting with others in the narrative.
The second section, the complication, brings up the possibility of the Englishmen being executed. Bonaparte observes that Donovan has "no great love for the two Englishmen." In the evening, Donovan and Bonaparte discuss the necessity of retaliation if the English were to shoot one of the Irish prisoners. Later, as Bonaparte and Noble try to sleep, they worry about the likelihood of being ordered to shoot their prisoners.
Section three, the rising action, intensifies the story. Donovan informs Bonaparte and Noble that the Englishmen will be executed. "There were four of our lads shot this morning, one of them a boy of sixteen." Bonaparte's worst fears are now confirmed.
The final section, encompassing the main crisis and the falling action, details the execution and is the longest of the four. This part raises themes of duty and responsibility for both the Englishmen and the Irishmen. It concludes the story with the remaining characters trying to make sense of what transpired in the woods.
Imagery
Images in a story appeal to our senses. Significant images in the tale include
the fire, the lamps, and the interplay of light and dark. These elements
combine to create symbols that add special meanings and importance to the
narrative. The fire, for instance, might symbolize purification. In a
fundamental sense, fire is used to remove impurities from a substance, leaving
a purified remainder. Theologians discuss the purifying fire of the Holy
Spirit, which can cleanse an individual's soul. Thus, fire becomes a symbol of
purification.
Symbolism
Symbols are images that hold both figurative and literal meanings. The
recurring images of light and dark in the story present a contrast between the
forces of darkness (evil) and light (good). They also reflect the internal
conflict of the rebels, who struggle with the notion that the executions they
carry out are unjustified. By the end of the story, the remaining characters
are left standing or praying in the dark, symbolizing a triumph of evil over
good.
As the men venture into the forest, the lamp's light glows faintly at the path's end. As they proceed, their lives waver; Bonaparte's hope that the Englishmen might escape wavers; the hope that they will be spared from execution wavers. After Hawkins is shot, he writhes in the agony of death, and his life wanes. The solitary image of the flickering lantern symbolizes these ideas.
Compare and Contrast
1916: After the Easter uprising, where Irish rebels take over the General Post Office in Dublin to establish a provisional government for the Irish Republic, fourteen rebel leaders are executed at Kilmainham Jail.
1998: Following the "Good Friday" Agreement, both the Irish and British governments commence the expedited release of paramilitary prisoners.
1919: Sinn Fein, an Irish political party, convenes in Dublin and proclaims Ireland's independence. Irish insurgents, later known as the Irish Republican Army, begin efforts to drive the British out of Ireland. This era is commonly referred to as the "Troubles."
1998: The "Good Friday" Agreement is signed, bringing at least a temporary end to three decades of violence in Northern Ireland.
Media Adaptations
On May 20, 1958, a performance of Guests of the Nation, a drama based on O’Connor’s story, was held. The adaptation and direction were handled by Neil McKenzie. This one-time performance took place at the Theatre de Lys in New York City. It was featured as part of a twin bill that also included Aria da Capo by Edna St. Vincent Millay.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Crider, J. R. "Jupiter Pluvius in ‘Guests of the Nation’," in Studies in
Short Fiction, Vol. 23, No. 4, Fall 1986, pp. 407-411.
Donoghue, Denis. A Review of Collected Stories by Frank O’Connor, in New York Times, September 20, 1981, Sec. 7, p. 3.
Ellmann, Richard. Introduction to Collected Stories by Frank O’Connor, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981.
Gelb, Arthur. A Review of Guests of the Nation, a play, in New York Times, May 21, 1958, p. 40.
Libermann, Michael. "Unforeseen Duty in Frank O’Connor’s ‘Guests of the Nation’," in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 24, No. 4, Fall 1987, pp. 438-441.
Matthews, James H. "Frank O’Connor," in Dictionary of Irish Literature, edited by Robert Hogan, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1979.
Neary, Michael. "The Inside-Out World in Frank O’Connor’s Stories," in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 30, No. 3, Summer 1993, pp. 327-336.
New York Times, March 11, 1966, p. 33.
Robinson, Patricia. "O’Connor’s ‘Guests of the Nation’," in The Explicator, Vol. 45, No. 1, Fall 1986, p. 86.
Sherry, Ruth. "Fathers and Sons: O’Connor among the Irish Writers: Corkery, AE, Yeats," in Twentieth Century Literature, Vol. 36, No. 3, Fall 1990, pp. 275-302.
Steinman, Michael, ed. A Frank O’Connor Reader, Rochester, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994.
Storey, Michael L. A Review of Frank O’Connor at Work, in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 27, No. 2, Spring 1990, pp. 273-274.
Storey, Michael L. A Review of A Frank O’Connor Reader, in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 33, No. 1, Winter 1996, pp. 148-150.
Wohlgelernter, Maurice. Frank O’Connor: An Introduction, New York: Columbia University Press, 1977.
Further Reading
O’Connor, Frank. An Only Child, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961. An
episodic autobiography using O’Connor’s real name, Michael O’Donovan.
O’Connor, Frank. My Father’s Son, Boston, MA: G. K. Hall and Co., 1985. A second volume of autobiography, compiled posthumously by his widow with assistance from Dr. Maurice Sheehy of Dublin University College.
Steinman, Michael, ed. A Frank O’Connor Reader, Rochester, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994. This collection includes annotated stories by Frank O’Connor, featuring "The Rebel," which had not been previously published, and the newly translated "Darcy in Tir na nog."
Wohlgelernter, Maurice. Frank O’Connor: An Introduction, New York: Columbia University Press, 1977. This comprehensive book examines O’Connor’s life and work, presenting his thoughts "to the historical and intellectual events of his time. . . . this study may be considered a biography of his mind."
