in 1963, Black Muslim leader Malcolm X in 1965, and both Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1968. Early progress in civil rights was overshadowed by riots in urban areas, where Black communities, whose hopes had been elevated by President Johnson's "Great Society" promises, felt unfulfilled. Economic instability was evident in a stagnant and inflation-ridden economy that struggled to fund both the Vietnam War and President Johnson's domestic programs.

Protests and Politics
The 1960s were marked by numerous protests, especially regarding civil rights and U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. By 1968, growing dissatisfaction with the Johnson administration's handling of these issues led to an unprecedented number of demonstrations, particularly on college campuses. Although President Lyndon Johnson chose not to seek reelection in 1968, the Democratic National Convention was viewed by many activist groups as an ideal platform for protest, offering them a broader audience. Various antiwar organizations, along with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)—once led by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.—gathered in Chicago to make their voices heard. This resulted in several clashes with Chicago police, who were directed by law-and-order mayor Richard Daley to suppress any demonstrations. A legal rally descended into chaos when police attacked not only the protesters but also innocent bystanders and journalists covering the event. The entire confrontation was captured on television and broadcast nationwide. In the aftermath, several leaders of activist groups, known as the "Chicago Seven," were charged by the U.S. Attorney General with conspiracy to incite a riot, despite most of them having never met before the convention.

Richard Nixon became president in 1968, partly thanks to his "law and order" stance and promises to bring an "honorable end" to the Vietnam War. However, in 1970, Nixon declared that U.S. military forces had invaded Cambodia, another Southeast Asian nation, to locate and eliminate enemy Vietcong bases. This announcement sparked widespread protests and riots on college campuses. The Ohio National Guard was summoned to control the unrest at Kent State University, and on May 4, they fired shots into a crowd, resulting in the deaths of four students and injuries to nine others, including some who were not part of the protest. Investigations later revealed that, contrary to official statements, none of the victims had posed a physical threat to the Guards or were closer than sixty feet. A similar tragedy occurred at Jackson State University in Mississippi eleven days later, claiming the lives of two women. These incidents led to a student strike that shut down over 200 colleges and universities across the nation, embroiling the country in a heated debate over political protests.

Literature of the 1960s
Reflecting an era marked by conflict and protest, much of the 1960s literature focused on political themes. Many socially conscious artists used their work as a vehicle to express their ideas, criticisms, and protests. Black humor, evident in antiwar novels like Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five and Joseph Heller's Catch-22, was frequently used to satirize contemporary issues. Writers also experimented with form, exploring new techniques to challenge the boundaries of traditional fiction. These innovative works often landed on best-seller lists, embraced by a public eager for new literary experiences and ideas. By the decade's end, however, many artists grew disillusioned with art's perceived ineffectiveness in achieving social reform. They adopted a nihilistic perspective, viewing life as meaningless. Literary works began to reflect this outlook, either by focusing solely on form rather than content or by employing absurdity to address life's perceived hopelessness.

John Gardner's Grendel, written at the end of this period, sought to counter this nihilistic perspective. While the novel's twelve-chapter structure is significant, it serves to emphasize and enhance the content rather than overshadow it. Gardner also argues for the artist's vital role in society. Through the character of the Shaper, Gardner highlights the positive impact an artist can have on those around them. In doing so, Gardner's work embodies the spirit of many other literary novels of the time and achieved similar success.

Point of ViewGrendel is narrated in the first person, using "I," from the perspective of the titular character. Grendel is a creature with a poetic nature, but his every attempt to connect with humans is met with confusion and hostility. By centering the narrative on the monster, the author invites readers to feel some sympathy for a character who, despite being thoroughly repulsive and enjoying consuming humans, has depth. The story's point of view shifts from the all-knowing narrator of the original poem to Grendel's own limited perspective, requiring readers to infer the theme from his viewpoint. Luckily, Grendel is not only an aspiring poet but a competent writer. In this way, he resembles Gardner's philosophical adversary, Jean-Paul Sartre, whose existential philosophy Gardner disliked. Gardner revealed to interviewer Marshall L. Harvey in the Chicago Review that he aimed "to present the Beowulf monster as Jean-Paul Sartre." Sartre believed humans are fundamentally isolated in a random universe without God, leading individuals to create personal values that hold meaning solely within their own consciousness. This is illustrated when Grendel, trapped by a bull, realizes that "the world was nothing: a mechanical chaos of casual, brute enmity ... I understood that, finally and absolutely, I alone exist" (Chapter 2). From this point until his demise, described as an "accident" (Chapter 12), Grendel embodies Sartre's stark philosophy.

Structure
The narrative begins in the "twelfth year of my idiotic war" against Hrothgar (Chapter 1) and employs flashbacks to recount the monster's life story. Grendel's extensive reflection spans from "when I was young" (Chapter 2) to his dying moments following Beowulf's fatal blow (Chapter 12). Within this framework, Gardner ambitiously constructs his story around the twelve years of Grendel's conflict, dedicating a chapter to each year. Additionally, each chapter is linked to an event associated with one of the twelve zodiac signs and their ruling planets and houses. (Barry Fawcett and Elizabeth Jones explain these elements in an American Literature article.) For instance, Chapter 1 begins with Aries, the ram, symbolizing Spring. Aries is linked to Mars, the god of war, which ties into Grendel's battle with Hrothgar. Aries also aligns with the first house in astrology, representing life, reflected in the funeral scene where Hrothgar honors the fallen. Beowulf's rousing speech in Chapter 12, with imagery of spring ("strong searching roots will crack your cave and rain will cleanse it: The world will burn green ... "), echoes the Spring themes of Chapter 1. This cyclical pattern underscores Beowulf's message of renewal. As Kathryn Van Spanckeren extensively analyzed in John Gardner: Critical Perspectives, Gardner employed such "embedded structures" as narrative frames in all his novels, except for Nickel Mountain.

Critics like Craig J. Stromme, writing in Critique, observe that each chapter of the book is crafted to emphasize a distinct philosophical school. After Gardner's introduction to the astrological idea of infinite cyclical repetition in Chapter 1, Grendel starts as a solipsist in Chapter 2, asserting, "I exist, nothing else." In Chapter 3, Grendel encounters the Shaper's sophistry, which uses words to make listeners believe anything. Chapter 4 presents the Shaper's depiction of Old Testament theology, contrasting the children of light with Cain's descendants, the children of darkness. Chapter 5 introduces the dragon, who shares English philosopher Alfred Whitehead's philosophy about the interconnectedness of all things, although Grendel fails to grasp it. In Chapter 6, Grendel becomes a skeptic, and Stromme notes that he "accepts that beings other than himself exist, but ... has postulated them all as enemies." As the chapters progress, Grendel is introduced to Christianity by Wealtheow in Chapter 7, Machiavellian politics by Hrothulf in Chapter 8, the hypocrisy of young priests in Chapter 9, Nietzsche's pessimism in Chapter 10, and Sartre's nihilism in Chapter 11. Consequently, Grendel functions as an exploration of various philosophical concepts.

Parody
In Gardner's work, Grendel serves as a parody that both imitates and critiques or admires particular literary pieces and authors. Most notably, Grendel is a respectful homage to its source material, the Old English epic Beowulf. Gardner takes much of the plot and characters directly from the original poem. When he expands a character's role, like Grendel or the dragon, it is typically to mock or contrast specific philosophers and their ideas. For instance, Grendel is depicted as a "case history of a bad artist," whose words are often misunderstood, according to David Cowart in Arches and Light: The Fiction of John Gardner. Grendel's words lead only to violence, while the Shaper's words inspire noble deeds. Inspired by the Shaper, Grendel tries his hand at poetry, initially producing laughable doggerel (Chapter 7). This clumsy attempt evolves into somewhat better rhymed verse (beginning of Chapter 8), more creative and metrically free verse (end of Chapter 8), and ultimately, truly inspired alliterative verse (Chapter 12), albeit written as Beowulf slams him against a wall. Similarly, the dragon's critique of the Shaper's lack of a "total vision, total system" in Chapter 5 seems to promote Whitehead's philosophy of interconnectedness, but as Howell points out, the dragon's "sneering tone seems to undermine the validity of Whitehead's vision as well as the Shaper's." Through parody, Gardner uses both Grendel and the dragon to highlight key aspects of differing philosophical views.

Sixth-century A.D. Scandinavia: By examining Scandinavian chronicles and sagas, historians can trace the events of the original Beowulf, which inspired Grendel, back to this era and region. The central political struggle in Beowulf involves the Danes, led by Hrothgar's family, and the Geats, represented by Beowulf and his companions. The Scandinavian stories also describe the conflict between Hrothgar and Hrothulf regarding the succession of the throne after Hrothgar's death.

1960s-1970s United States: During this time, political unrest in the U.S. reaches its height with students protesting the Vietnam War at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. The demonstrations are met with strong suppression by the Chicago police, under the leadership of Democratic Mayor Richard Daley. This results in widespread disillusionment not only with the Democratic Party, whose candidate Hubert Humphrey lost the presidential race to Richard Nixon, but also with the entire democratic system.

Today: There remains a significant level of disillusionment with the political system, as evidenced by the record number of eligible voters abstaining from elections and the pervasive skepticism among both politicians and the public regarding the democratic process's effectiveness. This cynicism is fueled by controversies over political campaign financing and the lack of bipartisan cooperation on numerous issues between the major political parties. Despite this, there is a consensus that the U.S. government system functions as well as, if not better than, any other devised worldwide.

Sixth-century A.D. Scandinavia: The political tribes of this region have limited interaction with non-European cultures. Although the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. reshapes political landscapes across Europe, it has little impact on Scandinavia, which was never part of the Roman Empire, either politically or economically.

1960s-1970s United States: This era marks the onset of a highly inflationary economy, characterized by rapidly rising prices. The combination of this economic stagnation and an oil embargo by Arab nations leads to a severe economic recession in 1973 and 1974.

Today: With low inflation and interest rates, the U.S. economy experiences steady growth, leading to a period of prosperity and optimism not seen since the early 1960s. In 1997, the impact of the global economy becomes apparent when a downturn in Asian markets causes a sharp decline in the U.S. stock market.

Sixth-century A.D. Scandinavia: Power in this region is derived from wealth gained through raids and trade, although eastward trade is disrupted by the Huns and Avars during this time. Society is composed of a landed aristocracy, tenant farmers, and a local judicial system.

1960s-1970s United States: Young people, especially students, begin to challenge the authority of government leaders at all levels. There is widespread questioning of the legitimacy of a predominantly white male power elite in making decisions for a younger and more diverse population. Civil rights organizations continue to advocate for minority rights, while others focus on equal rights for women and homosexuals.

Today: There is increased representation of women and minorities across different sectors, such as government and the workforce. However, some disparities persist, especially economic ones, and racial matters are significant in politics. As a nation with people of varied social, sexual, and ethnic identities, the United States is more akin to a "salad bowl" of distinct components rather than a "melting pot" with a single definition of "American."

The initial and ongoing appeal of Grendel largely stems from its reinterpretation of the first section of the Beowulf saga through the eyes of the monster. In the original epic, the monster is depicted as a mere brute, a descendant of Cain who slaughters King Hrothgar's warriors in his grand hall. Gardner presumes the reader's familiarity with the source material but reimagines Grendel as a strangely endearing character who is significantly more human than the creature in the original tale. Gardner's version of Grendel is part human, drawing connections to other significant literary monsters like Shakespeare's Caliban from The Tempest (circa 1611) and Milton's Satan from Paradise Lost (1667).

Though Grendel narrates this tale, readers should not confuse the monster's perspective with that of the author. Gardner utilizes a well-established literary technique known as the "unreliable narrator." This is a fictional character who earns the reader's sympathy but whose conclusions and interpretations should be carefully evaluated against the facts of both this story and the original Beowulf legend. Grendel does not embody Gardner's views on heroism or societal institutions. In fact, Grendel's skepticism is a key tool the author uses to clarify his theme, which paradoxically includes a modern endorsement of certain human values and artistic principles that Grendel fiercely opposes.

The story of Grendel was turned into an animated film called Grendel, Grendel, Grendel by Alexander Stitt in 1981. Sir Peter Ustinov provided the voice for the character Grendel.

Sources
David Cowart, "John Champlin Gardner, Jr." in Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 2: American Novelists since World War II, edited by Jeffrey Helterman and Richard Layman, Gale, 1978, p. 177.

David Cowart, Arches & Light: The Fiction of John Gardner, Southern Illinois University Press, 1983.

Don Edwards and Carol Polsgrove, "A Conversation with John Gardner," in Atlantic Monthly, May 1977, p. 43.

Helen B. Ellis and Warren U. Ober, "Grendel and Blake - The Contraries of Existence," in John Gardner: Critical Perspectives, edited by Robert A. Morace and Kathryn Van Spanckeren, Southern Illinois University Press, 1982, p. 47.

Barry Fawcett and Elizabeth Jones, "The Twelve Traps in John Gardner's Grendel," in American Literature, Vol. 62, December 1990, pp. 634-647.

John Gardner, On Moral Fiction, Basic Books, 1978, p. 82.

Marshall L. Harvey, "Where Philosophy and Fiction Meet: An Interview with John Gardner," in Chicago Review, Vol. 29, Spring 1978, p. 75.

John M. Howell, Understanding John Gardner, University of South Carolina Press, 1993, pp. 61, 71-73.

John Romano, review of Freddy's Book, in New York Times Book Review, March 23, 1980, p. 26.

Stephen Singular, "The Sound and Fury over Fiction," in New York Times Magazine, July 8, 1979, p. 36.

Craig J. Stromme, "The Twelve Chapters of Grendel," in Critique, Vol. 20, No. 1, 1978, p. 87.

Kathryn Van Spanckeren, "Magical Prisons - Embedded Structures in the Work of John Gardner," in John Gardner: Critical Perspectives, edited by Robert A. Morace and Kathryn Van Spanckeren, Southern Illinois University Press, 1982, pp. 114-129.

For Further Study
Leonard Butts, "The Monster as Artist: Grendel and Freddy's Book," in his The Novels of John Gardner: Making Life Art as a Moral Process, Louisiana State University Press, 1983, pp. 86-110. Butts examines Grendel as an unsuccessful artist who inhabits his own first-person tale, unable to connect with people or achieve redemption through creativity and imagination.

Norma L. Hutman, "Even Monsters Have Mothers: A Study of Beowulf and John Gardner's Grendel," in MOSAIC: A Journal for the Comparative Study of Literature and Ideas, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1975, pp. 19-31. The author draws parallels between the two works, asserting that Gardner's novel holds its own alongside the ancient classic.

Jerome Klinkowitz, "John Gardner's Grendel," in John Gardner Critical Perspectives, edited by Robert A. Morace and Kathryn Van Spanckeren, Southern Illinois University Press, 1982, pp. 62-67. Describes the book as a reflection of its era and criticizes it for being Gardner's personal trial rather than engaging with its intended audience.

Dean McWilliams, "Grendel," in his John Gardner, Twayne, 1990, pp. 29-41. McWilliams interprets Grendel as a study of how dialogue contributes to the shaping of identity and the world.

Joseph Milosh, "John Gardner's Grendel: Sources and Analogues," in Contemporary Literature, Vol. 19, No. 1, Winter 1978, pp. 48-57. An analysis linking Grendel with Chaucer's The Nun's Priest's Tale.

Jay Rudd, "Gardner's Grendel and Beowulf: Humanizing the Monster," in THOTH, Spring/Fall 1974, pp. 3-17. A detailed examination of the original poem and its allure for contemporary authors like Barth, Heller, Beckett, and Gardner.