Tragedy
Tragedies were the earliest form of Greek drama. As the scholar Paul Roche stated in The Orestes Plays of Aeschylus, "The theme of all tragedy is the sadness of life and the universality of evil." The Greeks believed that despite life's difficulties, these challenges were worth facing because life itself held value. Through enduring hardships, the tragic hero gains wisdom and personal growth.
The renowned Greek tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides each introduced unique themes and viewpoints to their plays. Aeschylus elevated tragic drama into significant literature, focusing on the struggles, choices, and destinies of individuals deeply connected to their society and deities. In his works, divine forces dictated human actions, and self-pride led people to defy divine will, resulting in punishment.
Sophoclean tragedies typically centered on characters whose personal flaws led to their suffering. The climax of the tragedy occurred when the protagonist realized their mistakes and accepted the resulting consequences. Among the three tragedians, Sophocles' characters are often seen as the most accurate representation of human experience.
In contrast, Euripides diverged from his predecessors by portraying a world governed by chance rather than divine will. He depicted mythic characters as if they were contemporaries of his own era, facing similar political and social challenges as fifth-century Athenians. These characters controlled their own fates, and their tragic outcomes stemmed from their inability to handle the challenges imposed by the gods or from their own desires. Euripides' plays frequently challenged established social norms and values.
Comedy
Comedy was another significant form of Greek drama. These comedies frequently poked fun at individuals, especially politicians, military leaders, and other notable figures. Victor Ehrenberg pointed out in The People of Aristophanes that “In no other place or age were men of all classes attacked and ridiculed in public and by name with such freedom.” Greek comedies were diverse, ranging from intellectual humor to bawdy antics. Some were satirical, while others relied on slapstick comedy. Techniques like verbal play, parody, metaphor, and allegory were commonly used. Aristophanes, the most renowned comic playwright, employed satire to mock the leaders and institutions of his era, often placing them in ridiculous scenarios, such as in the Birds, where characters attempt to construct “Cuckoo City,” a tranquil community in the sky.
Greek comedy is categorized into three distinct periods. Old Comedy, the initial phase of ancient Greek comedy, arose during the fifth century B.C. Mainly known through Aristophanes' works, it is sometimes called Aristophanic comedy. These plays are characterized by high-spirited satire targeting public figures and events. While they feature numerous songs, dances, and buffoonery, they also deliver overt political criticism and commentary on literary and philosophical subjects. Aristophanes' plays often parody tragedy. Middle Comedy, spanning from the late fifth century B.C. to nearly the mid-fourth century B.C., marks the transition from Old Comedy to New Comedy. This period's comedies humorously critiqued social classes or character types rather than individuals. Around 320 B.C., the playwright Menander introduced New Comedy. Similar to Old Comedy, it satirized contemporary Athenian society, but the criticism was much gentler. New Comedy differed by focusing on ordinary citizens—fictional characters from everyday life—instead of public figures and lacked supernatural or heroic elements. These plays often revolved around thwarted lovers and hidden identities, featuring stock characters like the harsh father, the clever slave, and the boastful cook.
Struggle and Rebellion
Greek tragedies often portrayed various conflicts, most notably between individuals and the state, between man-made laws and natural laws, or between human endeavors and destiny. In numerous Greek tragedies, the character who challenges the established order often emerges as the hero or heroine. Sophocles’ play
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Greek tragedies often portrayed various conflicts, most notably between individuals and the state, between man-made laws and natural laws, or between human endeavors and destiny. In numerous Greek tragedies, the character who challenges the established order often emerges as the hero or heroine. Sophocles’ playAntigone exemplifies these conflicts. Antigone defies her uncle Creon, the King of Thebes, by performing burial rites for her brother. By doing so, she prioritizes the divine laws, which dictate that her brother must be buried, over Creon's laws, which prohibited the burial because her brother attacked his own city. As a consequence of her defiance, Creon sentences Antigone to death. By the play’s conclusion, Creon, who prioritized his decree over the gods’ command, faces punishment through the suicides of his wife and son.
In Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, the struggle against predetermined fate is explored. Oedipus’s parents, Laius and Jocasta, attempt to prevent the prophecies that predict their son will kill his father and wed his mother. However, as the myth and play unfold, their efforts to avoid this fate are futile, and Oedipus ultimately fulfills the prophecy.
The Common Man
Both tragedies and comedies elevate the common individual. Greek royalty and the upper classes create a realm rife with adultery, incest, madness, and murder, while shepherds, craftspeople, yeomen farmers, and nurses maintain stability amidst this chaos. Sophocles and Euripides imbued these supporting characters with wisdom and sensitivity. In Sophocles’ Antigone, for instance, Creon’s guards offer him counsel and even challenge his decisions. Comedy, however, employed the common person differently than tragedy. Comic writers featured everyday characters, such as orphans, young lovers, and household heads, as main characters instead of focusing solely on aristocrats; their tales were equally deserving of being told. Menander’s plays particularly highlighted a civilized society where human decency prevails.
Mythology and the Gods
Early Greek drama, encompassing both tragedy and comedy, was heavily influenced by stories from mythology and legend. These myths highlighted universal issues that were relevant to challenges faced in fifth-century Greece, as well as in earlier times. The ancient Greeks believed that tragedy should focus on prominent figures and significant events, which is why the pantheon of gods is frequently present and often all-knowing. For example, Aeschylus’ plays often explored the justification of the gods’ actions in relation to humans or the understanding of divine justice. The gods might punish characters, as Zeus did to Prometheus in Prometheus Bound, or they might resolve seemingly insurmountable conflicts faced by characters, such as when Athena ordered the Furies to cease tormenting Orestes in the Oresteia. Tragic playwrights took the foundational elements of their stories from mythology and adapted them for dramatic purposes, giving their heroes and heroines human traits and connecting their themes to contemporary issues. Mythology provided these plays with a universal quality, enabling the playwrights to comment on current events without restricting their focus to contemporary figures and happenings.
Gods also played a significant role in Old Comedy. Cratinus’s Dionysalexandrus is a mythological burlesque play that retells the story of the judgment of Paris (Alexander), with some variations. Aristophanes’ works often parody tragedy, placing Greek gods and goddesses at the center of the characters' lives. Despite this, the use of mythology in drama was declining. Athens’ defeat in the Peloponnesian War led to a sense of disillusionment among the ancient Greeks with their legendary heroes and deities. This disillusionment, along with the rise of New Comedy, led writers to shift their focus from mythological themes to more common subjects, such as love and family life.
Love
The theme of love as a dramatic element was initially brought into the realm of comedic theater. In the New Comedy, the main plot often revolved around romantic entanglements, such as a young man's quest to win the woman he desires. These plays typically conclude with a marriage. Menander's works, however, might introduce unexpected twists. In The Arbitrators, complications emerge when a newlywed woman gives birth shortly after her marriage. Her husband accuses her of infidelity, unaware that he himself had previously assaulted her during a festival. The play concludes on a positive note, with the husband expressing remorse through a heartfelt speech.
