death of Pericles. In 404 B.C., Athens was forced to surrender, ushering in a period of instability for Greece. Aristophanes set many of his plays against the backdrop of the Peloponnesian War, using humor to highlight the war's absurdity.

Greek Women

Although Greek tragedies often portray strong, independent women, such roles were uncommon for women in ancient Athens. Women were excluded from political and governmental roles; they could neither vote nor hold office. They were seldom seen outside their homes, except for events like festivals, weddings, and funerals. Women could not marry without the approval of a male guardian, and only men could initiate divorce, which was relatively straightforward for them.

Despite these societal norms, tragedians crafted plays featuring women who defy these conventions and the laws enforcing them. Antigone is one such character, choosing to defy the king’s edict by burying her brother. Her sister, Ismene, tries to remind her of their submissive role: “We must remember, first, that we were born women, who should not strive with men.” Yet, Antigone disregards this warning, following her own moral compass. Medea, another character, challenges contemporary norms. At the start of Medea, she vocally criticizes the injustice of the societal system towards the women of Corinth. Throughout the play, she becomes a dominant figure.

Structure

Aristotle outlined in his Poetics around 350 B.C. that tragedy generally follows a specific sequence of events. Initially, there is the hamartia, which is the tragic mistake made by the hero, often unknowingly. In Oedipus the King, Oedipus’ killing of Laius and subsequent marriage to Jocasta represents this error. The peripeteia is the unforeseen twist that reveals this mistake, and the anagnorisis is the hero's realization of it. Aristotle believed that the peripeteia and anagnorisis are most impactful when they occur simultaneously, often when a character's true identity is revealed. For Oedipus, learning who his real father is leads to the shocking realization that his wife is his mother, causing his life to shift from happiness to despair. Finally, there is the catharsis, the emotional release of fear and pity that the tragedy evokes in the audience.

Old Comedy also had a distinct format. It began with the introduction or prologue, which explained and developed the plot. The main action started with the parados, the entrance of the chorus. This was followed by the agon, a formal debate between two main characters, a character and the chorus, or between two parts of the chorus. The parabasis was a segment where the chorus addressed the audience about contemporary political and social issues while also critiquing prominent Athenian figures. After a series of comedic scenes, the play usually ended with a feast or wedding. Although Old Comedy adhered to a structured format, it lacked a traditional plot, instead presenting a collection of episodes that collectively highlighted a significant political or social concern. In contrast, New Comedy presented a more defined plot with characters engaging in schemes and tricks to accomplish specific objectives.

Chorus

The Greek chorus was a vital component of Greek theater. Consisting of twelve to fifteen actors, the chorus remained on stage throughout the entire play, periodically delivering poetic songs in unison. The chorus observed and interpreted the play’s actions, responded to characters and events, posed questions, and offered advice. Different playwrights utilized the chorus in various ways. In some plays, the chorus helped advance the plot, while in others, it introduced major themes. Michael Grant explains in Myths of the Greeks and Romans that “the chorus complements, illustrates, universalizes, or dramatically justifies the course of events,” adding that it “comments or moralizes or mythologizes upon what happens, and opens up the spiritual dimension of the theme or displays the reaction of public opinion.”

The role of the chorus evolved over time, particularly in the works of the three great tragedians. In Aeschylus's plays, the chorus held a more prominent position. In Suppliants, the chorus serves as the protagonist, while in Agamemnon, the themes of the play are most clearly conveyed through the chorus's vocalizations. In Sophocles's dramas, the chorus can be seen as a group of characters with their own distinct perspective and viewpoint. In plays like Ajax and Electra, the chorus is closely aligned with the main character. In other works, such as Antigone and Oedipus at Colonus, the choruses consist of city elders who express their opinions on the unfolding events. By the time Euripides wrote his plays, the chorus had assumed a much less significant role. As noted by Rex Warner in Three Great Plays of Euripides, in Euripides's works, “The chorus perform in the role of sympathetic listeners and commentators, or provide the audience with a kind of musical and poetic relief from the difficulties or horrors of the action.”

Comedy also utilized the chorus, but with some variations. In Old Comedy, the chorus might take on a different function, often inciting conflict among the characters. In contrast, New Comedy used the chorus primarily as a small group of performers who entertained the audience or offered musical interludes between scenes.

Satyr Plays

Satyr plays were a combination of tragedy and comedy. While the themes were typically serious, the plots and tone were absurd and intended to amuse. These plays featured obscene visual and verbal humor and characters called satyrs, who were half-man, half-animal, and Silenus, a mythical horseman. Satyr plays were performed after the tragedies in theatrical competitions and provided a humorous or farcical take on the tragedy just witnessed. These plays were shorter than tragedies, had their own distinct choral dance, and used more colloquial language. Like tragedies, satyr plays drew themes and subjects from mythology. However, due to the fact that Euripides's Cyclops is the only complete satyr play that has survived, there is limited concrete information about them.

Deus Ex Machina

The term deus ex machina, which translates to “god from the machine,” describes the intervention of a deity or deities at a play's conclusion to rescue the main character. The "machina" refers to a stage apparatus, typically a crane, used to introduce these divine figures or heroes towards the play's end. Both Euripides and Aristophanes often used a deus ex machina to conclude their works. In Euripides' plays, gods would either narrate an epilogue explaining future events or remove the protagonist from the situation. For instance, in Medea, a deus ex machina brings Helios, the sun god, to rescue Medea from her husband Jason's vengeance, allowing her to take their sons' bodies, thus denying Jason even the comfort of their proper burial.

Unity

In ancient Greek tragedies, playwrights adhered to what Aristotle later identified as the Unities of Time, Place, and Action. The Unity of Time dictated that the play's events should occur within a single day; the Unity of Place required the action to be confined to one location; and the Unity of Action focused the story on a single central plot, excluding any unrelated characters or events. Some scholars have noted that the Unity of Time was not always strictly observed but was instead suggested through the concentrated focus on essential actions. For instance, Aeschylus’ Agamemnon begins on the morning the Trojan War ends in Asia Minor, yet by nightfall, Agamemnon has journeyed approximately five hundred miles back to Greece, where he is killed by his wife. Aristotle argued that adhering to these unities heightened the audience's emotional engagement, particularly enhancing their cathartic experience.

Other Forms of Tragedy

In addition to ancient Greek tragedies, significant tragic works have emerged during three other notable eras and locations: England from 1558 to 1625, seventeenth-century France, and Europe along with America from the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century. Similar to Greek theater, Elizabethan drama originated from religious rituals. The first formal English tragedy, Gorboduc by Thomas Sackville and Thomas Norton, premiered in 1561. However, it was Christopher Marlowe, writing in the late 1500s, who became the first tragedian to truly honor the Greek tradition. Shakespeare crafted his five most renowned tragedies in the early 1600s. After Shakespeare's era, the form of tragedy began to wane. During the 1600s in France, playwrights endeavored to revive the ancient Greek tragedy form. Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine epitomized the finest of the French neoclassical period. These authors adhered closely to Greek models and Aristotelian principles, drawing characters and scenarios from ancient Greece. Modern tragedy found its roots with Norway's Henrik Ibsen, Sweden's August Strindberg, and Russia's Anton Chekhov. In the United States, however, few plays captured the full scope of tragedy. Some critics regard Eugene O’Neill as the first American playwright to produce tragedy for the American stage, believing that the essence of life—and its hope—resided in the tragic.

The Greek Theater and the Staging of Plays

Ancient Greek theaters were open-air venues featuring a large circular area known as the orchestra, where the action occurred. Behind the orchestra stood a "scene building" (skene, the origin of the modern word scene), a facade where painted backdrops could be placed. Surrounding the orchestra was a semicircular auditorium with bleacher-style seating for ten to twenty thousand attendees. People from all walks of life came to watch Greek plays.

Performances began with actors and the chorus, accompanied by musicians, entering through two pathways on either side of the orchestra. The performers moved and gestured in unison, only breaking formation upon reaching their designated spots in the orchestra. As the story unfolded, the chorus moved about, responding to the play's events and characters. Distinct from the chorus, actors donned elaborate masks representing recognizable archetypes, such as old men or young women. These masks enabled actors to assume multiple roles throughout the play and allowed men to portray female characters. The costumes were vividly colored to aid in character identification; for instance, royalty wore purple. All performances took place in outdoor settings, whether natural or urban.

Opera

Opera has its roots in Greek tragedies. This musical genre emerged in Florence, Italy, at the close of the sixteenth century when a group of scholars, poets, and musicians known as the Camerata recognized the significant role music played in ancient tragedies. The Camerata collaborated to create and perform two productions inspired by the mythological tales of Daphne and Eurydice in 1597 and 1600, respectively. These performances merged drama, music, and spectacle, aiming to recreate Greek tragedies. The operas were an instant hit, and in the early 1600s, this innovative form of performance spread across Italy and into France, Austria, Germany, and England. By 1607, Claudio Monteverdi's masterpiece, Orfeo, had established the core structure of European opera, which would remain largely unchanged for the next three centuries.

500s B.C.: In this era, Athens rises to prominence among the Greek city-states, reaching its peak in economic success and cultural achievements. This period, known as the Golden Age of Greece, establishes Athens as a hub for the arts.

Today: Athens remains the focal point of Greek political, cultural, and economic activities. Approximately four million people, accounting for about 40% of the nation's population, reside in the city's metropolitan area. Modern Athens is rich with ancient ruins, reflecting its historical grandeur.

500s B.C.: The Greeks worship a pantheon of twelve gods residing on Mount Olympus. These deities are perceived as influential entities with little tolerance for any affronts to their dignity. Offenses that most anger the gods include inhospitable behavior, neglecting the burial of family members, human arrogance, and acts of murderous violence.

Today: Ancient Greek religion persisted until the spread of Christianity in the fourth century A.D. Today, the majority of Greeks belong to the Church of Greece, also known as the Greek Orthodox Church. However, there remains a deep pride in the ancient myths and legends.

500s B.C.: Around 508 B.C., Cleisthenes deposes the ruling aristocrats in Athens, establishing a direct democracy. The Council of Five Hundred, selected from local districts, is responsible for law-making, and a judicial system with citizen juries is introduced. By the mid-fifth century B.C., Pericles opens public offices to all male citizens and ensures that officeholders receive payment, enabling men of all economic backgrounds to participate in government.

Today: Greece functions as a parliamentary republic. The parliament is made up of three hundred deputies, elected every four years through direct, universal, and secret voting. The prime minister wields significant authority but must maintain the confidence of the parliament to govern effectively.

Antigone Sophocles’ play Antigone (441 B.C.) tells the story of the titular character's rebellion against the king of Thebes and his decrees. Antigone's brother has perished during his insurrection against the king, Creon, who is also his uncle. Creon has prohibited the performance of proper burial rites for him. The central conflict of the play is between Antigone and Creon, whose opposing views revolve around authority; Antigone prioritizes personal beliefs and divine laws, while Creon emphasizes authoritarian rule and the subjugation of personal emotions to the state.

Bacchae

Many scholars consider Bacchae (circa 405 B.C.) to be Euripides’ greatest work. In this drama, the god Dionysus arrives in Thebes to establish his cult. King Pentheus opposes him, prompting Dionysus to drive the women, including Pentheus’s mother, into a delusional, frenzied condition. Mistaking Pentheus for a wild beast, the women kill and dismember him. Dionysus believes his horrific vengeance is justified, revealing his own moral flaws. The play illustrates the need for reason and self-control to balance the ecstatic aspects of Dionysian worship.

Birds Alongside Frogs, Birds (414 B.C.) is often regarded as one of Aristophanes’ finest works. It showcases the utopian theme in Greek literature. Peisthetaerus, the leader of Athens, seeks to escape the war ravaging Greece. He convinces the birds to help him construct a new city suspended in the sky, positioned between the realms of humans and gods. Peisthetaerus eventually gains dominion over even the gods. Birds satirizes Athens’ imperial ambitions, and some critics suggest it predicts the city's eventual defeat by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War and subsequent decline. Birds is longer than any other ancient Greek play—comedy or tragedy—and highlights Aristophanes’ exceptional skill.

DyscolusDyscolus (The Grouch), a prizewinning play by Menander, was first performed in 317 B.C. Although the story centers on a young man's attempts to marry, it focuses on the grumpy character of the girl's father, Knemon, whose misanthropy has caused him to neglect his parental duties. The play, an early work, is relatively straightforward, but it is the only complete text of Menander's plays available today, showcasing his talent for creating unexpected twists in the final act.

Frogs

Many critics regard Frogs as one of Aristophanes' finest works. The play cleverly blends comedy with serious topics, including contemporary politics, literary criticism, and religion. When it debuted at the City Dionysia in 405 B.C., it won first prize and was uniquely honored with a repeat performance. In Frogs, Dionysus, the god of theater, ventures to the underworld to bring the playwright Euripides back to Athens. In the realm of Hades, Dionysus observes a dramatic contest between Euripides, who embodies modernity, and Aeschylus, who symbolizes the esteemed past. Ultimately, Dionysus chooses to return Aeschylus to the living world, believing he is better equipped to restore Athens' moral, political, and military vigor.

Lysistrata

Aristophanes' comedy Lysistrata, penned in 411 B.C., was created shortly after Athenian forces suffered defeat in Sicily during the Peloponnesian War. In Lysistrata, the women of Athens, alongside women from across Greece—including their Spartan adversaries—initiate a domestic and sexual strike to compel their husbands to cease fighting. Through this narrative, Aristophanes employed women, who held no political or military power, to critique the prolonged war. This play has become the most frequently performed Greek drama in contemporary times.

Medea

Medea (431 B.C.) is among Euripides' most compelling and renowned plays. It centers on Medea, who exacts vengeance on her unfaithful husband by killing their children. The play explores her internal conflict between personal betrayal and maternal affection, highlighting the significant theme of revenge in Greek tragedy. Despite Medea's horrific deeds, Euripides elicits sympathy for her, as she garners support from the women of Corinth throughout most of the play.

Oedipus at Colonus

Oedipus at Colonus (produced around 401 B.C., after Sophocles' death) is the playwright's final work. It depicts the elderly, blind Oedipus at the sacred grove in Colonus, a village near Athens. Having spent years in exile, shunned by his family except for his two daughters, Oedipus now finds his sons and brother-in-law seeking his aid to defend Thebes. The play is celebrated for its somber tone, beauty, and lyrical quality. Sophocles endows Oedipus with spiritual and moral authority, and some critics interpret the play as Sophocles' poetic last will and testament.

Oedipus the King

Also referred to as Oedipus Rex, Oedipus the King was first introduced by Sophocles around 427 B.C. This tragedy is one of the most significant ever composed. It narrates the tragic fall of Oedipus, the ruler of Thebes, who learns that he has unknowingly killed his father and wed his mother. Upon this realization, Oedipus blinds himself and departs Thebes. Despite fulfilling his destined fate, Oedipus's actions demonstrate integrity and a strong will. He also shows acceptance of his new, dreadful reality. Aristotle referenced this play in his Poetics to illustrate the essential characteristics of successful tragedies. Additionally, psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud used Oedipus's story to develop the term Oedipal complex, which describes a man's typically repressed desire to eliminate his father to marry his mother and possess her exclusively.

Oresteia

Aeschylus’ Oresteia is the only complete trilogy from ancient Greece that has survived. Originally performed in 458 B.C., it includes Agamemnon, Choephoroi (The Libation Bearers), and Eumenides (referring to the "kindly ones," the furies seeking revenge on Orestes). It depicts the cycle of murder, retribution, punishment, and justice within the royal family of Atreus. The Oresteia is often regarded as Aeschylus’ greatest work and one of the finest pieces of world literature. It is notable for its exceptional blend of poetry, song, dance, and music, along with its portrayal of the evolution of the Athenian democratic jury system.

Prometheus Bound

Prometheus Bound was presented as part of a trilogy in 472 B.C. In this play, Prometheus defies Zeus and saves humanity by granting them fire, leading Zeus to chain Prometheus to a mountain as punishment. The drama unfolds from the conflict between Zeus, the dominant god, and Prometheus, who stubbornly refuses to divulge the secret knowledge about Zeus’s ability to maintain his rule. Prometheus has come to symbolize the archetype of defiance against oppressive authority. Some scholars question whether Aeschylus was the actual author of Prometheus Bound.

Oedipus Rex, directed by Pier Paolo Pasolini, was released in 1967. The film features performances by Silvana Mangano and Franco Citti and is presented in Italian with English subtitles.

Medea, featuring Judith Anderson and Colleen Dewhurst, was directed by José Quintero and hit theaters in 1959. You can find it on Ivy Classics Video, released in 1991.

In 1962, George Tzavellas released his adaptation of Antigone, starring Irene Papas and Manos Katrakis.

The opera Oedipus Rex was completed in 1949, with music composed by Igor Stravinsky and a libretto written by Jean Cocteau. It is accessible on videodisk.

Sources

Aristotle, Poetics, translated by S. H. Butcher, Hill and Wang, 1989.

Bieber, Margarete, Excerpt from The History of the Greek and Roman Theater, included in Greek Drama, edited by Don Nardo, Greenhaven Press, 2000, pp. 138–46. Originally published by Princeton University Press, 1939, 1961, 1989.

Bowra, C. M., Classical Greece, Time-Life Books, 1965, p. 102.

Ehrenberg, Victor, The People of Aristophanes: A Sociology of Old Attic Comedy, Schocken Books, 1962, p. 26.

Grant, Michael, Excerpt from Myths of the Greeks and Romans, found in Greek Drama, edited by Don Nardo, Greenhaven Press, 2000, pp. 46–49. Originally published by Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1962.

Hammond, N. G. L., and H. H. Scullard, editors, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition, Clarendon Press, 1970.

Hartigan, Karelisa V., Excerpt from Greek Tragedy on the American Stage, part of Greek Drama, edited by Don Nardo, Greenhaven Press, 2000, pp. 155–62. Originally published by Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995.

Henderson, Jeffrey, “Aristophanes,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 176: Ancient Greek Authors, edited by Ward W. Briggs, Gale, 1997, pp. 47–54.

Keaney, John J., “Plato,” in Ancient Writers, Vol. 1, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1982, pp. 353–76.

Kopf, E. Christian, “Aeschylus,” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 176: Ancient Greek Authors, edited by Ward W. Briggs, Gale, 1997, pp. 8–23.

Roche, Paul, translator, The Orestes Plays of Aeschylus, New American Library, 1962, p. xvii.

Segal, Charles, “Sophocles,” in Ancient Writers, Vol. 1, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1982, pp. 179–207.

Walker, Charles R., Excerpt from Sophocles’ “Oedipus the King” and “Oedipus at Colonus,” in Greek Drama, edited by Don Nardo, Greenhaven Press, 2000, pp. 148–54. Originally published by Doubleday, 1966.

Warner, Rex, translator, Three Great Plays of Euripides, New American Library, 1958, p. vii. Wolff, Christian, “Euripides,” in Ancient Writers, Vol. 1, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1982, pp. 233–66.

Further Reading

Ferguson, John, A Companion to Greek Tragedy, University of Texas Press, 1972. This book is invaluable for understanding the core themes of Greek tragedy, as well as the specific plays and playwrights.

Martin, Thomas R., Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times, Oxford University Press, 1998. This historical narrative offers a thorough overview of ancient Greece, with a focus on the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.

Nardo, Don, editor, Greek Drama, Greenhaven Press, 2000. Nardo compiles significant excerpts that cover the evolution of Greek drama, including discussions on tragedies, comedies, and their influence in the modern world.

Pomeroy, Sarah B., et al., Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History, Yale University Press, 2000. This extensive narrative, authored by four leading classical scholars, highlights the creativity inherent in ancient Greek culture.

Vickers, Brian, Towards Greek Tragedy: Drama, Myth, Society, Longman, 1973. This book delves into the cultural components that contributed to the creation of Greek tragedies.