Introduction

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Drama as an art form originated in the ancient Greek city-state of Athens during the late sixth century B.C. The initial tragedies emerged from religious chants dedicated to Dionysus and focused on the deities and the mythical history of Greece. By the fifth century, Greek audiences were captivated by the works of four prominent playwrights. Among them, three—Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides—were known for their tragedies. Their early plays explored the coexistence of good and evil in the world, alongside other conflicting forces of human nature and the external environment.

All three tragedians drew inspiration from Greek myths and legends, each contributing distinct innovations to the genre. Aeschylus, in his Oresteia trilogy, delved into themes of revenge and justice, elevating tragedy to a serious literary art form. Sophocles authored what is often considered the greatest tragic play, Oedipus the King. Euripides, the final great tragedian, challenged conventional values and questioned the absolute authority of the gods. His plays, such as Medea and Antigone, explore human decision-making in challenging circumstances.

C. M. Bowra noted in his book Classical Greece that “Greek tragedy provides no explicit answers for the sufferings of humanity, but it . . . shows how they happen and how they may be borne.” Indeed, Sophocles’ Oedipus the King portrays a deeply tragic sequence of events, illustrating how one man, despite the devastation of his life, creates a new sense of self and learns to coexist with his fate. The myth of Orestes, depicted in both Aeschylus’s Oresteia trilogy and Euripides’ Orestes, introduces significant themes in Greek tragedy, including justice (divine, personal, and communal) and vengeance.

Comedy likely developed from the same religious rituals as tragedy. Aristophanes is recognized as the foremost playwright of the early period known as Old Comedy. He employed sharp satire in plays such as Birds and Lysistrata to mock notable Athenian figures and contemporary events. Later comedic works shifted away from satire and mythology, focusing more on the interactions among ordinary Greek citizens.

Greek drama pioneered a completely new art form, and over the ages, the works of these ancient Greek playwrights have profoundly influenced and inspired countless writers, philosophers, musicians, and other artists and thinkers. With its universal themes and scenarios, Greek drama continues to resonate with modern audiences.

Representative Authors

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Aeschylus (c. 525–456 B.C.)

Aeschylus was born around 525 B.C., likely in Eleusis. He is recognized as the first of the most renowned ancient Greek tragic playwrights. He transformed dramatic presentations from mere choral performances into sophisticated works of art. His influence is notable for introducing a second actor on stage, which enabled dialogue, and for reducing the chorus from about fifty to fifteen members. With Aeschylus, tragic drama was conveyed through action rather than just recitation. He participated in the City Dionysia—a festival honoring the god Dionysus, featuring processions, bull sacrifices, feasts, and dramatic contests—probably first competing in 499 B.C. and securing his first victory fifteen years later. His masterpiece, the Oresteia trilogy, was produced in 458 B.C. His plays remain of enduring literary significance due to their lyrical language, complex plots, and universal themes. Aeschylus's language is characterized by power, grandeur, and emotional depth, as well as by the use of metaphors and figurative expressions. He authored about ninety plays, of which seven have survived. Aeschylus passed away around 456 B.C. in Gela, Sicily.

Aristophanes (c. 450–385 B.C.)

Aristophanes was born around 450 B.C., possibly on the Greek island of Aegina. His plays are the only intact examples of Old Comedy, which primarily focused on political satire rather than the human relationships central to New Comedy. Aristophanes’ themes and works generally mirrored...

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the social, literary, and philosophical life of Athens, with many inspired by events from the Peloponnesian War. Out of his approximately forty plays, eleven have survived. Among his most famous works areBirds and Frogs. His charm lies in his clever dialogue, biting satire, and the creative nature of his comedic scenes. Many of his plays continue to be performed on modern stages. Aristophanes died around 385 B.C. in Athens, Greece.

Crates (fl. c. 470–450 B.C.)

Crates, who flourished around 470 B.C. in Athens, is regarded as the founder of Greek comedy. According to Aristotle, he moved away from traditional comedy, which focused on personal attacks, and introduced broader narratives with well-developed plots.

Cratinus (?–c. 420 B.C.)

Cratinus was esteemed in antiquity as one of the three great playwrights of the Old Comedy era. Although only fragments of his twenty-seven known plays remain, they reveal that his comedies, much like those of Aristophanes, blended parodied mythology with references to contemporary events. For instance, Athenian leader Pericles was often a target of Cratinus’s satire. He died around 420 B.C.

Epicharmus (c. 530–440 B.C.)

Epicharmus, born around 530 B.C., is considered the pioneer of Sicilian, or Doric, comedy. He is credited with more than fifty plays, though few lines have survived. Many of his works were mythological burlesques, even mocking the gods. His vibrant style made his work more akin to New Comedy than to the Old Comedy of his era. He died around 440 B.C.

Eupolis (fl. c. 445–411 B.C.)

Eupolis, alongside Cratinus and Aristophanes, was esteemed in ancient times as one of the three leading playwrights of the Old Comedy era. His debut play was staged in 429 B.C., but only portions of his works have survived. He targeted Athenian demagogues and affluent citizens with his satire, while also addressing serious topics, such as strategies for Athens to gain an advantage over Sparta during the ongoing Peloponnesian War. Eupolis passed away around 411 B.C., still relatively young.

Euripides (c. 485–406 B.C.)

Born circa 485 B.C. in Attica, the region of central Greece where Athens is located, Euripides was one of the three great tragedians of his time. He achieved his first victory at the City Dionysia in 441, having competed there twenty-two times. Out of his ninety-two plays, nineteen (including one with disputed authorship) remain. His renowned works include Medea (431 B.C.), Hippolytus (428 B.C.), Electra (417 B.C.), Trojan Women (415 B.C.), Ion (circa 411 B.C.), Iphigenia at Aulis (405 B.C., posthumously), and Bacchae (405 B.C., posthumously).

Unlike Aeschylus and Sophocles, Euripides' characters often face tragic outcomes due primarily to their own flawed personalities and unrestrained emotions, while the gods watch their plight with seeming disinterest. Structurally, his plays differ from those of the other two dramatists: they frequently begin with prologues and conclude with a divine appearance, known as deus ex machina. The prologue is typically a monologue that sets the scene and introduces the characters, while the deus ex machina features a god's epilogue that foretells the characters' future. Euripides died in Macedonia in 406 B.C.

Menander (c. 342–292 B.C.)

Born around 342 B.C., Menander is now recognized as the foremost writer of New Comedy, which emphasizes human relationships. However, during his lifetime, he was not as successful. Despite writing over a hundred plays, only eight won awards at Athens' dramatic festivals. His first play was staged in 321 B.C. The sole complete play of his that remains is Dyscolus, which earned a festival prize in 317. The Roman playwrights Plautus and Terence adapted many of Menander's works, influencing European comedy's evolution from the Renaissance onward. Menander died around 292 B.C.

Phrynichus (fl. c. 420 B.C.)

Phrynichus was an Athenian poet from the Old Comedy period and was a contemporary of Aristophanes and Eupolis. He began producing plays in 430 B.C. and achieved two victories at the City Dionysia.

Sophocles (c. 496–406 B.C.)

Sophocles was born around 496 B.C. in Colonus, near Athens. He is celebrated as one of the three great tragic playwrights of classical Athens. In 468 B.C., he achieved his first victory at the City Dionysia, surpassing Aeschylus. Throughout his career, he wrote a total of 123 plays for this annual festival, winning approximately twenty-four times and never placing lower than second. Of the seven plays that still exist today, his most famous work is Oedipus the King, which was performed between 430 B.C. and 426 B.C. Sophocles introduced significant innovations in drama, such as reducing the chorus size and adding a third actor to the stage. He is renowned for his language, artistic skill, and vivid character portrayals.

In addition to his literary achievements, Sophocles was an influential citizen of Athens. He served as a treasurer in the Delian League, a coalition of Greek states led by Athens, established in 478 B.C. following the defeat of the Persian invasion under Xerxes to ensure continued liberty. He was also elected as one of the ten military and naval commanders and became one of ten members of the advisory committee responsible for Athens' financial and domestic recovery after its defeat in the Peloponnesian War at Syracuse in 413 B.C. Sophocles passed away in 406 B.C. in Athens.

Sophron (fl. c. 430 B.C.)

Sophron of Syracuse lived and worked during the early to mid-400s B.C. He was known for writing rhythmical prose mimes that portrayed scenes from everyday life.

Thespis (fl. c. 534 B.C.)

Thespis hailed from the district of Icaria in Attica. He holds the distinction of being the first recorded winner of the prize at the City Dionysia, which he won around 534 B.C. Thespis is credited with creating the role of the speaking actor, who "delivered prologues and conversed with the chorus-leader" while impersonating the heroes featured in his dramas, thus becoming the world's first actor. He is regarded as the "inventor of tragedy."

Themes