Historical Context
The Rise of American Theatre
In the late 1800s, a group of playwrights, including James A. Herne, Bronson
Howard, David Belasco, Augustus Thomas, Clyde Fitch, and William Vaughn Moody,
began to challenge the conventional melodramatic styles and themes. As a
result, American theatre started to develop its own distinct identity. These
playwrights, along with others in the early 1900s, were influenced by the
dramatic breakthroughs of Henrik Ibsen, August Strindberg, and George Bernard
Shaw. During this era, experimental theatre groups consisting of dramatists and
actors encouraged the innovation of American playwrights. In 1914, Lawrence
Langner, Helen Westley, Philip Moeller, and Edward Goodman founded the
Washington Square Players in New York. In 1915, playwright Susan Glaspell
helped launch the Provincetown Players in Massachusetts. The most notable
member of this latter group was Eugene O’Neill, who crafted plays with a
distinctly American voice. George H. Jensen, in the Dictionary of Literary
Biography, observes that “before O’Neill began to write, most American
plays were poor imitations or outright thefts of European works.” Jensen argues
that O’Neill became the “catalyst and symbol . . . of the establishment of
American drama.”
Realism
In the late 1800s, playwrights began to move away from what they saw as the
artificial nature of melodrama, instead focusing on everyday life and its
common elements. Their work, alongside much of the experimental fiction of the
time, embraced the principles of realism, a literary movement that seriously
examined believable characters and their often challenging interactions with
society. To achieve this, realistic drama emphasizes the ordinary and removes
the unlikely coincidences and excessive emotions typical of melodrama.
Playwrights like Henrik Ibsen abandoned traditional sentimental theatrical
forms, instead portraying the strengths and weaknesses of ordinary people
facing difficult social issues, such as the restrictive norms experienced by
women in the 1800s. Realist dramatists used settings and props that mirrored
their characters’ daily lives and employed dialogue that mimicked natural
speech patterns.
Expressionism
In the early 1900s, playwrights also embraced techniques from another emerging
literary movement: Expressionism. This style rejected the realist focus on
lifelike representation and instead used experimental methods to portray the
inner experiences of individuals. Influenced by Freud's theories, playwrights
like August Strindberg employed nonrealistic techniques that distorted and
sometimes simplified human actions to delve into the human mind's complexities.
Eugene O’Neill's extensive career mirrored the evolving styles of American
theatre from the late 1800s to the early 1900s. His initial works were
unsuccessful attempts at melodrama, but he later embraced realistic portrayals
of sailors and family dynamics. In the 1920s, he experimented with
expressionism, particularly in Emperor Jones and The Great God
Brown.
Style and Technique
The interplay of realism and expressionism in Eugene O’Neill's The Great God Brown creates a complex narrative that delves into the multifaceted nature of human identity. By using symbolic devices such as masks, O'Neill explores the duality between public personas and the hidden emotional turmoil of his characters. This article examines how O’Neill’s stylistic choices blend realism with expressionism and symbolism to deepen the psychological profiles of his characters.
Blending Realism and Expressionism
O’Neill masterfully combines realism, a style that mirrors real life, with expressionism, which distorts reality to reflect characters' inner experiences, in The Great God Brown. Expressionistic plays often use masks to either conceal or reveal the characters’ emotions. In this play, masks serve as a metaphor for the public images the characters wish to project while disguising their internal struggles and isolating them from each other. As George H. Jensen notes in Dictionary of Literary Biography , "The mask is a defense, a pose, a lie that a character presents to the world...
(This entire section contains 523 words.)
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to protect the vulnerable self beneath it." O’Neill presents the mask as both a protective necessity and a source of alienation that eventually leads to the characters’ demise.
This expressionistic technique is set within a realistic framework, as seen when Billy assumes Dion’s identity not only by donning his mask but also by wearing his clothes. This realistic element helps him deceive others in the office, maintaining a realistic setting where believable events unfold. O’Neill adds complexity by having Billy constantly switch between his own identity and that of Dion, underscoring the tension between appearance and reality. Margaret’s appearance at the office complicates matters, as it would be implausible for her to accept Billy as Dion without the tangible evidence of Dion's clothes.
The Role of Mythological Symbolism
O’Neill's use of mythological symbolism in The Great God Brown further enriches the psychological depth of his characters. Dion Anthony and William Brown are symbolic representations of the Greek deities Dionysus and Apollo, respectively. Apollo stands for reason and culture, while Dionysus embodies instinct and primal energy. The philosophical discourse introduced by Nietzsche during the nineteenth century regarding these opposing forces significantly influenced twentieth-century literature, with writers like D. H. Lawrence using similar themes to explore intellect versus instinct. In the play, Billy epitomizes the Apollonian aspect, characterized by controlled intellect devoid of creativity, while Dion resonates with the Dionysian, representing instinct and creative liberation.
Additionally, O’Neill incorporates the symbolism of Pan, the pastoral Greek god associated with fertility and mischief, who was often linked with Dionysus. Dion’s mask, reflecting Pan's features, allows characters to assume Pan’s mischievous personality. However, as Dion’s artistic aspirations are thwarted, the mask evolves to assume a more Mephistophelian nature, reflecting satanic traits. This transformation results in Dion's face appearing more spiritual, introducing Christian symbolism into the play. Dion’s last name, Anthony, hints at Saint Anthony, who resisted temptation according to Christian lore. By the play’s end, Dion becomes a martyred figure akin to Saint Anthony, rejecting worldly temptations and resisting the urge to retaliate against Billy for his betrayal.
Compare and Contrast
1926: Joseph Stalin rises to power as the dictator of the Soviet Union. His oppressive rule will extend for twenty-seven years.
1991: On December 17, President Mikhail Gorbachev initiates the disbandment of the Soviet Union, leading to the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States by the nations that previously constituted the Soviet Union.
1926:The Theory of the Gene, authored by Columbia University zoologist Thomas Hunt Morgan, establishes a foundation for the advancement of genetic studies.
1984: Veterinarian Steven Willadsen successfully splits sheep embryos, resulting in the cloning of a sheep.
1926: The film Don Juan, featuring John Barrymore, becomes the first movie to include sound recorded electronically. This technology, known as Vitaphone, is developed by Western Electric.
1980: Video cassette recorders become highly popular among American consumers, leading to a lucrative market in the rental and sale of videocassettes.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Allen, Kelcey, ‘‘Great God Brown by O’Neill Unique,’’ in Women’s Wear
Daily, January 25, 1926.
Anderson, John, ‘‘Another O’Neill Play Comes to Town,’’ in New York Post, January 25, 1926.
Anschutz, Grace, ‘‘Masks, Their Use by Pirandello and O’Neill,’’ in Drama, Vol. 17, April, 1927, p. 201.
Atkinson, Brooks, ‘‘Ibsen and O’Neill,’’ in New York Times, January 31, 1926, p.1.
Atkinson, Brooks, ‘‘Symbolism in an O’Neill Tragedy,’’ in New York Times, January 25, 1926, p.26.
Bogard, Travis, Contour in Time: The Plays of Eugene O’Neill, Oxford University Press, 1972.
Bogdanoff, Rose, ‘‘Masks, Their Uses Past and Present,’’ in Drama, Vol. 21, May, 1931, p. 21.
Brown, John Mason, ‘‘Doldrums of Midwinter,’’ in Theatre Arts, Vol. 10, March 1926, pp. 145–46.
Carb, David, ‘‘The Great God Brown,’’ in Vogue, Vol. 67, March 15, 1926, p. 106
Clark, Barrett H., ‘‘Fin de Saison on Broadway,’’ in Drama, Vol. 16, May, 1926, pp. 289–90.
Coleman, Robert, ‘‘God Brown Tedious,’’ in New York Mirror, January 25, 1926.
Gilbert, Gabriel, ‘‘All God’s Chillun Got Masks,’’ in New York Sun, January 25, 1926.
Gillette, Don Carle, ‘‘The Great God Brown,’’ in Billboard, Vol. 38, February 6, 1926, p. 43.
Jensen, George H., ‘‘Eugene O’Neill,’’ in Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 7: Twentieth-Century American Dramatists, Gale, 1981. pp. 139–65.
Metcalfe, J. S., ‘‘A Plea in Defence,’’ in Wall Street Journal, January 25, 1926.
Osborn, E. W., ‘‘The Great God Brown,’’ in New York World, January 25, 1926.
Review in New York Graphic, January 25, 1926.
Vreeland, Frank, ‘‘The Masked Marvel,’’ in New York Telegram, January 25, 1926.
Further Reading
Anderson, John, Review in Literary Review of the New York Evening
Post, April 10, 1926, p. 2. Anderson provides a mixed critique of the
play, concentrating on O’Neill’s methods.
Cohn, Ruby, ‘‘Eugene O’Neill: Overview,’’ in Reference Guide to American Literature, 3rd ed., edited by Jim Kamp, St. James Press, 1994. Cohn delves into the tragic elements present in O’Neill’s works.
Marsh, Leo, Review in New York Telegraph, January 25, 1926. Marsh explores the play’s ‘‘clinical experiment’’ in its structure. Review in New Yorker, Vol. 1, February 6, 1926, p. 26. This critic disapproves of O’Neill’s use of masks but commends the play for delivering a ‘‘nutritious fluid of a deeply digested idea.’’
