Introduction

John Steinbeck’s novel The Grapes of Wrath is one of his best known novels because it provides opportunities for rich analysis of its narrative style, setting, and historical context.

Narrative style

Steinbeck uses a third-person omniscient point of view in The Grapes of Wrath. This point of view follows several characters' perspectives and changes within specific chapters. This change of perspective contributes to tone, adding more opportunities for readers to gain different understandings of the text.

• For example, Jim Casy's perspective is reflective, full of long-winded speeches, and slow mannerisms. This change in tone forces readers to also slow down and reflect.

Steinbeck also intersperses the novel with short chapters that are not about the Joad family’s journey. These chapters, usually odd numbered, summarize ideas and events. With these chapters, Steinbeck explores bigger concepts and themes, such as the use of land, migration of families, class conflict, and community.

Steinbeck’s use of perspective gives the novel a broader scope. Readers not only see all of the character’s interactions, but also glimpse the larger contextual aspects of The Grapes of Wrath through these historical, context-based chapters.

Steinbeck also employs colloquial speech. For instance, characters from Midwestern states within the novel speak in a Midwestern dialect; this deviates from the characters who speak the “standard” West Coast accent in California.

The difference in language between the Midwestern migrant workers and the California landowners is stark. On one level, this highlights their class differences; on another, it suggests a value judgment on location, in which the idea of a place is equated with being either desirable or not.

• To the Californians who are growers, landowners, or the upper-class, the migrant farm laborers are the “other’’—and are therefore different enough to deserve being ostracized.

Much of the novel focuses on class conflict and the mistreatment of the migrant farm laborers. The groundwork of this mistreatment lies in language, because it is one of the first indicators of difference. Steinbeck uses the colloquial language of the Joad family and other migrant laborers to illustrate their different values.

• For instance, the speech and mannerisms of migrant laborers, as seen in the interactions of the Joad family, are full of kindness, caring, and humor.

By contrast, the growers, contractors, and police often use cold or judgmental language. Because of this, readers often sympathize with the migrant laborers and their colloquial language.

Setting

Steinbeck uses different settings in The Grapes of Wrath to help provide a rich backdrop for the Joad family's journey. In addition to reflecting historical events, the stark contrast between Oklahoma and California illustrate the tension between migrant workers and land owners, the working class and middle to upper class.

The story begins in Oklahoma, home to the Joads and recently devastated by the dust bowl. Steinbeck begins the novel in Oklahoma in order to convey how dry and unforgiving the land of Oklahoma was; everything is described as red or brown, very dusty, and with little vegetation or shade. This environment illustrates how dire the Joads' situation is and their need to move elsewhere to survive.

The Joad family finds hope in California; they heard that farms there are bountiful, and that laborers are needed. The latter half of The Grapes of Wrath takes place in the San Joaquin Valley in southern California. Rich in fertile land for agriculture, the San Joaquin Valley provides a stark contrast to the sparseness and poverty of both Oklahoma and the Joad family. However, despite moving to a fertile and healthy land, the Joads find that it is no so-called promised land, because the growers and landowners are unwelcoming and pay very little.

Other settings important to The Grapes of Wrath include the following: Route 66, the Colorado River, the “Hoovervilles,” and the Weedpatch Camp. These locations are migratory and unstable to varying degrees with the exception of the Weedpatch camp, which gives migrant families a chance to engage in civic duties, to live in cleanliness, and to live in relative happiness:

• Route 66 represents travel and movement; the majority of the Joad family’s story takes place along Route 66, highlighting how little the Joads have in terms of stability and possessions.
• The Colorado River represents character movement. Near the California state border, the Colorado River is where the Joad family loses their son Noah, who decides to leave the family to live on the river.
• The “Hoovervilles,” a derogatory name for camplike towns that migrant families would set up, further show the Joads' lack of security. These camps also lack in safety and cleanliness, further illustrating the plight of the migrant workers.
• The Weedpatch Camp, set up by the government, is the first sanitary and relatively protected place that the Joads experience. Weedpatch's positive portrayal may indicate a preference for the government's efforts at the time since they provided better living conditions for migrant workers than the California growers and landowners did. Furthermore, the Weedpatch Camp highlights the migrant people’s ability to be successful and well-organized when given the opportunity to thrive.

In addition to the broad impact the settings have on the novel's events, other settings act as catalysts for specific characters.

• After the Weedpatch Camp, the Joads move north to the Pixley Peach Farm, a place which highlights the mistreatment of the migrant laborers by the growers. Here, the laborers attempt to unionize to fight for better wages and living conditions. They do not succeed; instead, the Pixley Peach Farm is the scene of Jim Casy’s death at the hands of vigilantes against the movement to unionize. This setting is also where the protagonist, Tom Joad, realizes that he needs to help others and become a part of the movement.
• The boxcar is where the Joad family stays with the Wainwrights is meant to evoke visions of migration and movement for readers. This lack of permanence is what the Joad family struggles with. Despite the instability of the situation, the Joad and Wainwright families work together. They even have their children, Al Joad and Aggie Wainwright, get married. Despite living in tenuous conditions, the families work hard to create unity.
• During the flood, the Joads and the Wainwrights, except the newlyweds Al and Aggie, travel through the rising water and find refuge in a barn. Rosasharn has just birthed a stillborn baby, Tom Joad has left, and the family is broken. Despite this, the barn becomes a place of truth and goodness. The family finds a starving father and his son hiding in the barn. Rosasharn decides to feed the starving man her breast milk. The novel ends on this scene of sacrifice and compassion, as the remaining Joads take shelter within the safety of the barn. The last two settings of the flooding boxcar and the barn help dramatize the Joad family’s journey and choices. the environment cannot stop the family from achieving unity and goodness in the end, despite their suffering.

Historical Context

The Grapes of Wrath depicts the struggle of farming families during the Great Depression. However, farmers in the United States were struggling before the start of the Great Depression. During WWI, European farmers were largely unable to tend their land, so American farmers found success selling their goods for higher prices as competition dropped. This success led many American farmers to take out large loans in order to buy better equipment or more land. The end of WWI meant the return of European farmers’ goods in the global market. American farmers became less successful and couldn’t pay off the loans they had taken out. Starting in the early 1920s, many American farmers were pushed off their land by banks for being unable pay off their loans.

In 1929, stock market prices crashed, resulting in the beginning of the Great Depression. Many families lost their savings, jobs, and homes. Banks came to collect on loans that many farming families could not repay. These families were often forced off of their land by the banks, just like the Joad family. In addition to the failing economy, areas such as Oklahoma, Kansas, and Northern Texas were also experiencing severe droughts. Bad farming practices, such as not rotating crops and over-farming the land, combined with drought, led crops to fail and farms to dry up. Dust accumulated, resulting in highly destructive dust storms. This period of environmental disasters during the 1930s is known as the Dust Bowl. This, combined with banks repossessing land, forced many families to move out of the Midwest and go towards California.

The Farm Security Administration was created as part of President Roosevelt's New Deal in 1933. This administration helped build government camps in California to house migrant farming families. The Joad family stays at the fictional Weedpatch camp, based on the Arvin Sanitary Camp near Bakersfield, California. The goal of these camps was to influence landowners to build similar housing for the migrant workers. This did not occur. As a result, many families ended up staying at these camps for long periods of time with little help or support from the growers, which gave rise to several issues:

• Migrant laborers engaged in efforts to unionize, as can be seen in The Grapes of Wrath. These efforts were met with much resistance by the growers and landowners in California. With the aid of the local police forces, growers and landowners worked to try and quell the laborers, which often resulted in violence.
• Vigilantism became a problem between the California growers and the migrant laborers, as depicted in The Grapes of Wrath with Casy’s death.

Steinbeck involved himself deeply in the lives of these migrant laborers. He went to government camps, worked as an itinerant laborer, and became familiar with the farmland of California. With this intimate knowledge, Steinbeck wrote several novels on the struggle of migrant farm laborers, the adverse effects of capitalism, and the hope of a shared dream. These novels were In Dubious Battle (1936), Of Mice and Men (1937), and The Grapes of Wrath (1939).

Religious Symbolism

Key religious imagery and symbols are seen in the general dream of going west to California. California symbolizes a “promised land” for all the migrating families within the novel. The movement of the families to California is reflective of the biblical story of the Exodus. Similar to the Israelites traveling to the promised land of Canaan, the displaced families’ migration is toward a land that they hope will bring an end to their suffering and that they can claim for their own. Steinbeck puts a twist on this, however, by placing the people with power and money in control over the poor migrating families’ fates. Instead of finding success in California, most families only find more suffering at the hands of people with financial interests. For example, many families were denied living wages or work in order to benefit the large companies and associations that run the farm land.

The title The Grapes of Wrath also highlights the religious connections within the novel. The origin of the phrase “grapes of wrath” may well come from the biblical scriptures of Isaiah 63 and Apocalypse 19; both refer to the winepress and grapes as holy symbols. Furthermore, in Isaiah 63 Jesus claims to have “trodden the winepress alone” whereas Apocalypse 19 suggests the wrath of God is the winepress.  The migrant laborers reflect the wrath of God and will eventually wreak havoc upon the landowners, as is reflected by this quote: “In the souls of the people the grapes of wrath are filling and growing heavy, growing heavy for the vintage.” It is also important to mention the hymn “Battle Hymn of the Republic,” which includes the line “He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored.” The hymn, which was a popular song sung by Union soldiers and abolitionists during the American Civil War, has long since been used as an espousal of faith, social justice, and the truth of God. It is perhaps fitting that the title The Grapes of Wrath reflects this battle hymn, as the migrant laborers are battling to unionize, bring truth, and enforce that proper wages are paid to them.

The Work

From the moment of its publication in 1939, no twentieth century American novel has provoked more controversy and criticism for its social philosophy, alleged atheistic beliefs, and profane language than has John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath.

Born in Salinas, California, in 1902, Steinbeck published his first novel, Cup of Gold in 1929. Many other novels followed, including The Grapes of Wrath. Many critics consider this his finest work; it won him the Pulitzer Prize in 1940. The Grapes of Wrath became an instant best-seller despite vehement attacks by critics, who were not limited to Californians and Oklahomans. Efforts by school boards from Kansas City, Kansas, to Buffalo, New York, to censor the book in public libraries on pornographic and political grounds were successful. Chambers of commerce and religious groups throughout the United States tried to prevent filming of the novel by producer Darryl F. Zanuck. Because of the intense furor, Zanuck sent a film crew to California to discover whether Steinbeck had exaggerated the plight of the migrants. What they discovered was worse than Steinbeck depicted, so they proceeded with the film—which later received seven Academy Award nominations.

However, Zanuck did alter certain parts of the novel, including the ending. Instead of having Rose of Sharon breast-feed a starving man after she delivered a stillborn child, the film ended with Ma Joad reaffirming the belief that common people would endure despite their hardships.

While The Grapes of Wrath was accused of exploiting the poor, using lewd and obscene language, and portraying life in a bestial, mean way, most criticism focused on two misconceptions: The novel’s alleged espousal of atheism—largely through the character of Jim Casy—and its supposedly sympathetic view of communism. Such accusations were made by critics who misunderstood the two basic American concepts underlying the novel, Transcendentalism and Jeffersonian Agrarianism.

Steinbeck’s characters of Jim Casy, Tom Joad, Ma Joad, and Rose of Sharon convey spiritual, rather than atheistic, attitudes toward life. Although Casy is a defrocked preacher, he believes in the universal presence of a deity in every facet of life and relies on his conscience to guide his behavior. In a Christ-like gesture, Casy sacrifices his life for the good of all displaced people. Tom Joad, too, sacrifices himself at the end of the novel for the same goal. The two main female characters exhibit the Christian qualities of self-sacrifice, uncompromising love, and strength in the face of tragedy.

Charges that the novel is sympathetic toward communism are equally unfounded. Its story calls for unity among migrant workers in order to preserve rather than restrict their rights. The collective efforts of the poor farmers against the power structure are based on pragmatic objectives, not Marxist concepts. Representing yeoman farmers in the Jeffersonian tradition, the migrant workers believe that working and owning the land gives meaning and purpose to their lives. Because of ideas such as these, The Grapes of Wrath remains a classic depiction of humanity’s struggle against oppression.

Bibliography:

Ditsky, John, ed. Critical Essays on Steinbeck’s “The Grapes of Wrath.” Boston: G. K. Hall, 1989. In addition to important essays on the novel’s composition, critical reception, and other topics, this collection provides contemporary reviews of the novel and useful maps of the 1936 Dust Bowl, westward migration in the 1930’s, Route 66, and a government camp.

Donohue, Agnes McNeill. A Casebook on “The Grapes of Wrath.” New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1968. Contains thirty-seven discussions of the novel as both a social document and as literature. Also reprints Steinbeck’s 1962 Nobel Prize acceptance speech and suggests topics for studying or writing about the novel.

Gladstein, Mimi Reisel. The Indestructible Woman in Faulkner, Hemingway, and Steinbeck. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Research Press, 1986. A fresh and intelligent discussion of Ma Joad, Granma Joad, and Rose of Sharon as “indestructible women” who hold the family together. This study opens ground for feminist consideration of Steinbeck’s works.

Steinbeck, John. Working Days: The Journals of “The Grapes of Wrath,” 1938-1941. Edited by Robert DeMott. New York: Viking, 1989. Steinbeck’s journals and correspondence while writing the novel are valuable resources for studying the cultural, historical, and literary origins of the book, as well as the author’s creative process. DeMott provides an insightful introduction to these materials.

Wyatt, David, ed. New Essays on “The Grapes of Wrath.” New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Five essays covering Steinbeck’s portrayal of human history as an organic process, Ma Joad’s character, the novel’s relationship to journalism, and the propagandistic aspects of John Ford’s 1940 film version of the novel.

*Dust Bowl

*Dust Bowl. Central region of the United States that was devastated by great dust storms during the 1930’s. The first part of The Grapes of Wrath is set in Oklahoma, at the center of the Dust Bowl. Tom Joad returns from four years in prison to find that his family has lost its farm, and many of his neighbors have been made homeless by the banks and land companies that have taken over their farms when the tenants could not keep up with their payments through several disastrous seasons. Lured by handbills distributed by West Coast growers, Tom and his family begin the long trek from the devastated Dust Bowl to the promising fields of California.

The epic structure of the novel becomes a triptych of Oklahoma/journey/California. In the intercalary chapters—those interchapters of the novel, such as five and fourteen, in which Steinbeck gives important sociohistorical background—he explains what happened to this land and why, and how the loss of their farms led thousands of “Okies” to leave for California.

*Route 66

*Route 66. Highway leading out of Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas toward California. This narrow strip of highway, bordered by hamburger stands and gasoline pumps, is the escape route for the Joads and other families hit hardest by the Depression. It is also the place where they come together and form extended families moving westward. In the evenings, in their makeshift camps, “a strange thing happened: the twenty families became one family.” Route 66 is thus the setting for one of Steinbeck’s major themes, which is how communities form and provide strength for all their members. As the Joad family loses members along the way, Ma Joad emerges as the leader and helps shape a larger, matriarchal family as others join them. “They ain’t gonna wipe us out,” she says. “Why, we’re the people—we go on.”

*California

*California. Site of fruitful fields and bountiful crops. Steinbeck describes the Joads’ first sight of the San Joaquin Valley’s rich farming land in almost biblical language, as he does in other passages in the novel: “The vineyards, the orchards, the great flat valley, green and beautiful, the trees set in rows, and the farm houses.” The contrast to Oklahoma’s impoverished farms could not be stronger; however, Steinbeck makes it clear in intercalary chapters 19 and 21 that similar economic and agronomic policies are exploiting the land and its people in both locales, and that “when a majority of the people are hungry and cold they will take by force what they need.” This second theme—that of revolutionary socialism—emerges in The Grapes of Wrath, not in the Dust Bowl, but in California, where so many migrants have been drawn to the harvests by the promise of work that they see their wages steadily reduced because of the surplus of workers. The Okies are thus transformed from tenant-farmers to migrant workers. The next step, Steinbeck says, is certain: “On the highways the people moved like ants and searched for work, for food. And the anger began to ferment.”

Steinbeck shows no California cities in the novel, but reveals the contrast between the bountiful fields and the “Hoovervilles,” the temporary camps in which migrant workers are forced to live without adequate water or sanitation in California’s great Central Valley. “There is a crime here that goes beyond denunciation,” Steinbeck writes. “In the souls of the people the grapes of wrath are filling and growing heavy, growing heavy for the vintage.” Steinbeck’s thematic metaphors, including his novel’s title, grow directly out of the land he describes.

Weedpatch

Weedpatch. Government-run camp for migrant workers located below Bakersfield in central California (based on the Arvin Sanitary Camp) where the Joads stay for several weeks. Weedpatch is the emotional high point of the novel, and a clear contrast to the Hoovervilles. When the Joads arrive, they are greeted by migrants like themselves who run the camp with efficiency and care. The community theme in the novel is thus reinforced in these chapters, culminating in the festive Saturday night dance. Given a chance, Steinbeck is showing, people will manage their own affairs well and work for better lives. The local land owners want the camp removed and try to cause a disturbance at the dance, however, for Weedpatch gives people hope for a better life and reveals that they only want the same opportunities as other Americans.

Pixley peach farm

Pixley peach farm. Dirty migrant cabins and a depressing contrast to living conditions at Weedpatch. When the Joads are forced to leave Weedpatch in order to find work farther north, they arrive at a peach farm where the owners have reduced wages so low that workers go on strike. It is here that Jim Casy—the labor organizer who travels west with the Joads—is killed and Tom leaves the family to join the organizers fighting the terrible conditions for migrant workers in California.

Boxcar

Boxcar. Last home of the Joads in the novel. Drawn by the promise of cotton picking, the depleted Joad family ends up living in a boxcar with other displaced families. It is in a field near which Tom says good-bye to Ma with the promise that he’ll always be near: “Wherever they’s a fight so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there. . . . An’ when our folks eat the stuff they raise an’ live in the houses they build—why, I’ll be there.”

Black barn

Black barn. Last shelter for the Joads. Forced out of the boxcars by torrential rains, the family seeks shelter in a barn on higher ground, and the novel ends when Rose of Sharon, whose own baby is stillborn, suckles a dying old man and smiles “mysteriously” across the barn. In the biological metaphor that defines the novel, life is being nurtured even at this last site, and hope for the people survives.

Troubles for Farmers
The narrative of the Joads in The Grapes of Wrath starts during the Great Depression, but the difficulties for American farmers had started years earlier. During World War I, farmers enjoyed high crop prices due to food shortages and disrupted European markets. Consequently, they borrowed extensively from banks to invest in land and equipment. However, after the war, prices for wheat, corn, and other crops plummeted as European farmers resumed their operations, leaving American farmers unable to repay their loans. Therefore, while much of the nation experienced economic prosperity in the 1920s, American farmers faced severe challenges. Banks began foreclosing on loans, often evicting families from their homes. Likewise, families renting land from owners who defaulted on loans, like the Joads, were also evicted. The situation worsened significantly after the 1929 stock market crash.

The Great Depression and the Dust Bowl
In October 1929, stock prices plummeted dramatically, leading to the collapse of businesses and banks worldwide and erasing the savings of many families. In the subsequent years, unemployment rates soared to twenty-five percent. Although there remains considerable debate about the causes of the stock market crash, many analysts believe that weaknesses in the coal, textile, and farming industries were fundamental issues. At the time, forty percent of America's working population were farmers. When low crop prices made it challenging or impossible for consumers to purchase items like radios and refrigerators, it significantly impacted the economy. Goods accumulated in warehouses with no buyers, causing a sudden devaluation of company stocks.

The pressure on banks to collect on loans led to the eviction of many farmers. However, this was not the only problem farm families faced. During the 1930s, six years of severe droughts hit the Midwest, causing crop failures. This, combined with poor farming practices such as overgrazing and lack of crop rotation, resulted in the land becoming barren and dry. Massive dust storms ensued, burying entire communities in sand. Over five million square miles of land, spanning from Texas to North Dakota and Arkansas to New Mexico, were affected, earning the Midwest the name "Dust Bowl." Although the economic hardship affected everyone, small farming families like the Joads suffered the most. Oklahoma was particularly hard-hit, leading to thousands of dispossessed farming families migrating to California. These migrants were referred to as “Okies,” although many of them came from states other than Oklahoma.

Migrant Camps and Labor Unions
When Franklin D. Roosevelt assumed the presidency in 1933, he initiated a sweeping series of government programs aimed at alleviating the Great Depression. Known collectively as the New Deal, these initiatives included the establishment of new federal agencies intended to generate employment and enhance the conditions for workers and the unemployed. Among these various agencies, the Farm Security Administration (FSA) had the most significant impact on the lives of the Okies. In 1936, under the Department of Agriculture's jurisdiction, the FSA began constructing camps in California to provide housing for homeless migrants. By the following year, ten such camps were completed. Steinbeck visited several of these camps for his research on The Grapes of Wrath. He depicted the Joads staying at one of these camps—the Arvin Sanitary Camp, also known as the Weedpatch Camp, in Kern County. The goal was for orchard owners to emulate this model and build larger, better housing for their migrant workers. Unfortunately, this did not happen, and many families were forced to live in the substandard federal camps for extended periods.

In their struggle to secure fair wages, migrant workers attempted to form labor unions. Predictably, this effort was met with strong resistance from the growers, who had the backing of the police, often resorting to violent measures. For instance, in Kern County in 1938, a mob led by the local sheriff set fire to an Okie camp that had become a hub for union organizing.

Point of View
The novel employs a third-person narrative voice ("he"/"she"/"it"). A notable aspect of this technique is its variation in tone and method, tailored to the author's intent. A unique feature of the novel is its sixteen intercalary chapters (typically the odd-numbered ones), which offer documentary insights to the reader. These chapters provide social and historical context about the mid-1930s Depression era, particularly its impact on migrants like the Joads.

These intercalary chapters encompass descriptions of the Dust Bowl, agricultural conditions in Oklahoma, California’s history, and the roads leading west from Oklahoma. In the more focused chapters that center on the Joads, the point of view becomes more intimate and dramatic. Additionally, many of these intercalary chapters include fundamental symbols of the novel: land, family, and the conflict between migrants and representatives of banks and agribusiness. The turtle in Chapter 3 symbolizes Nature’s struggle and the will to survive, reflecting the resilience of the Joads and "the people."

Setting
John Steinbeck crafted some of his finest fiction about the region where he grew up. The area Steinbeck wrote about spans thousands of square miles in central California. He frequently used the Long Valley, which extends south of Salinas—Steinbeck’s hometown—as a setting in his fiction. The Long Valley, over one hundred miles long, lies between the Gabilan Mountains to the east and the Santa Lucia Mountains on the Pacific Coast. The primary setting of The Grapes of Wrath is the San Joaquin Valley, located east of the Long Valley and the Gabilan Mountains. The Long Valley also serves as the general setting for Of Mice and Men (1937) and East of Eden (1952), two other renowned works by Steinbeck. This fertile agricultural region is an ironic backdrop for a novel that explores the economic and social struggles of the Depression era. It was far from a promised land for the Joads and others like them.

One of Steinbeck’s significant achievements is his vivid depiction of the environment and nature’s impact on social history. He was also ahead of his time in highlighting the plight of migrant workers and small farmers against corporate farms and financial institutions, decades before such issues gained national attention in the 1970s.

Symbolism
The primary symbol in the novel is the family, representing the broader "family" of humanity. Central to the novel's dramatic elements, the Joads exemplify human strengths and vulnerabilities. Both natural and societal threats disrupt the family, yet they endure economic and environmental catastrophes, much like humanity as a whole. By the novel’s conclusion, the Joads acknowledge their place within a larger familial network. The land itself symbolizes a sense of personal identity. When the Joads lose their farm in Oklahoma, they experience a loss of identity, which they strive to reclaim throughout their journey to California. Pa Joad, in particular, loses his spirit after the family is forcibly removed from their land and must relinquish his authority to Ma following their displacement.

The novel also features a series of Judeo-Christian symbols. Much like the Israelites, the Joads are a displaced and oppressed group seeking their promised land. Jim Casy can be seen as a Christ-like figure, beginning his mission after a period of isolation in the wilderness. Casy is introduced after a similar retreat, and later, when he and Tom meet in the strikers’ tent, Casy remarks that he has "been a-gin’ into the wilderness like Jesus to try to find out sumpin." Additionally, Jim Casy shares the same initials as Jesus Christ. Like Christ, Casy ultimately sacrifices himself to save his people. His final words to his murderer are telling: “Listen, you fellas don’ know what you’re doing.” Just before his death, Casy reiterates: “You don’ know what you’re a-doin’.” When Jesus was crucified, He said, “Father forgive them; they know not what they do.” After Casy’s death, Tom becomes his disciple, prepared to carry on his mentor’s work. It is also noteworthy that two of Jesus’s disciples were named Thomas.

Biblical symbols from both the Old and New Testament stories are prevalent throughout the novel. The journey begins with twelve Joads, symbolizing either the twelve tribes of Israel or the twelve disciples of Christ, with Jim Casy serving as the Christ figure leading them to spiritual enlightenment. Similar to Lot’s wife, Grampa is unwilling to leave his homeland, and his inability to move on results in his death. This symbolism is further highlighted when Tom selects a Scripture verse referencing Lot for Grampa’s burial. The narrative seamlessly transitions between the Old and New Testaments, particularly through Jim Casy, whose views on humanity and a new social gospel mirror Christ’s teachings from two millennia ago. In the final scene, biblical myths are woven into a collection of symbols that signify a new order in the Joads’ world. Seeking refuge from the flood in a dry barn, the narrative introduces symbols from the Old Testament deluge (Noah’s ark), the New Testament stable where Christ was born (the barn), and the mysterious rite of Communion as Rose of Sharon breastfeeds a starving man. This ending clearly marks a new beginning for the Joads, with all symbols representing hope and renewal despite their ongoing dire circumstances.

Allusion
Allusions to grapes and vineyards are consistently made throughout the novel, carrying both Biblical and economic implications. The title of the novel, taken from Julia Ward Howe’s poem “The Battle Hymn of the Republic,” is itself an allusion dating back to the Bible’s Old Testament. In Isaiah 63:4–6, a man tramples grapes in his wrath: “For the day of vengeance was in my heart, and the year for my redeeming work had come. I looked, but there was no helper; I stared, but there was no one to sustain me; so my own arm brought me victory, and my wrath sustained me. I trampled down peoples in my anger, I crushed them in my wrath, and I poured out their lifeblood on the earth.” Steinbeck’s first wife, Carol, proposed the title after hearing the lyrics of the patriotic hymn: “Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord / He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored.” Steinbeck adored the title and wrote to his agent: “I think it is Carol’s best title so far. I like it because it is a march and this book is a kind of march—because it is in our own revolutionary tradition and because in reference to this book it has a large meaning. And I like it because people know the ‘Battle Hymn’ who don’t know the ‘Star Spangled Banner.’”

Steinbeck was well aware that his unfinished novel was groundbreaking and would likely be criticized by many as Communist propaganda. He chose the title deliberately, as it had a distinctly American patriotic feel, which he hoped would counter accusations of leftist bias. Steinbeck wanted the entire hymn, both its lyrics and music, printed on the endpapers at the front and back of the book. He wrote to his publisher: “The fascist crowd will try to sabotage this book because it is revolutionary. They will try to give it the communist angle. However, the ‘Battle Hymn’ is American and intensely so. Further, every American child learns it and then forgets the words. So if both the words and music are there, the book is keyed into the American scene from the beginning.”

Allegory
An allegory is a narrative where characters and events symbolize broader human truths. The turtle in Chapter 3 is the novel’s most notable example of allegory. The patient turtle embarks on a challenging journey across the dusty fields of Oklahoma, frequently encountering obstacles but always managing to persevere. Much like the Joads, the turtle heads southwest, away from the drought. When a trucker swerves to hit the turtle, it survives, just as the Joads endure their displacement. Later, Tom finds a turtle, and Casy remarks: “Nobody can’t keep a turtle though. They work at it and work at it, and at last one day they get out and away they go—off somewheres.” The turtle gets hit by a truck, carried off by Tom, attacked by a cat and a red ant, yet, like the Joads and “the people,” it remains resilient with a strong will to survive. It drags itself through the dust and unknowingly plants a seed for the future.

The central aspect of The Grapes of Wrath is Steinbeck's juxtaposition of the Joad family's narrative with brief chapters that broadly address the migrant workers' hardships during this era. These "intercalary chapters" run parallel to the main storyline and often share a loose connection with it. One of the most notable examples is the novel's third chapter, where Steinbeck details a land turtle's journey across a highway. The turtle struggles up the roadbank, crosses the asphalt while cars either avoid or hit it, and is eventually knocked to the other side by a truck. This journey symbolizes the Joads' own trek to California, with the turtle even heading in the same direction. Similarly, the Joads' narrative serves as a microcosm for the experiences of all migrants. By including these chapters, Steinbeck emphasizes that the Joads' story is not unique but rather represents the universal struggle for dignity and a quest for a kind of paradise, whether on earth or within oneself.

Steinbeck also heavily draws on the Biblical story of the Exodus to structure the novel. The book is neatly divided into three sections: leaving the drought-stricken land of Oklahoma (mirroring the Jews' exodus from Egypt), the journey across the Western desert (akin to the forty years of wandering), and the attempt to settle in California (resembling the efforts to establish a foothold in the Promised Land of Canaan). Frequent Biblical references and situations reinforce these parallels and highlight the universal nature of the Joads' experience. Additionally, as in many of his other works, Steinbeck uses animal imagery extensively to underscore the struggles faced by his characters.

The Great Depression of the 1930s serves as the backdrop for Steinbeck's most significant and celebrated novel. Set in the verdant valleys of California, the narrative juxtaposes the idyllic natural beauty of the land with the dire poverty experienced by migrant workers. These workers, fleeing the Midwest dust bowl, sought a better life in a place where the land could sustain them.

Steinbeck highlights the social conditions that compelled people to leave their homes in Oklahoma and other states. The rise of "absentee farmers," large corporations, and banks that acquired vast tracts of land, employing new farming methods, displaced the small farmers. These small farmers' ancestors had originally transformed the wilderness and plains into fertile farmland. Through the journey of the Joad family, Steinbeck illustrates how the bountiful land of California, where fruit grows in abundance, becomes a man-made hell for the migrants. Native Californians, fearing the power of this influx, enacted laws and regulations to keep these newcomers disenfranchised and impoverished.

The novel offers a profound and disheartening view of the inhumane treatment Americans inflict on each other when their territorial rights are threatened. Nevertheless, The Grapes of Wrath also demonstrates how adversity can bring out the best in people, compelling them to share what little they have to survive. Steinbeck delves into a particular theory of human behavior that captivated him throughout the 1930s: the "group man" theory. He posited that the behavior of individuals in groups takes on a collective identity, independent of the individual members, with its own unique characteristics. In groups, men lose their individuality and become part of a larger organism with its own life. Throughout this novel, and in other works written during this period, Steinbeck includes scenes that explore the nature of the "group man" and the relationship of individuals as components of this collective entity.

Steinbeck conducted extensive original research and fieldwork for this novel. He traveled with migrants from Oklahoma to California and spent time living in migrant workers' camps. His nonfictional accounts of these experiences were compiled in Their Blood Is Strong (1938), which served as a source for material that appears in The Grapes of Wrath. The novel also bears similarities to Steinbeck's earlier work on life in California migrant camps, particularly in Dubious Battle (1936).

The novel has other literary influences as well. The Bible significantly impacted Steinbeck, shaping both the themes and the structure of the story. Additionally, parallels can be drawn with the work of naturalistic writers from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The use of intercalary chapters is reminiscent of the "camera eye" technique used by John Dos Passos in the U.S.A. trilogy. This technique is also akin to that used by Herman Melville in Moby-Dick (1851), where whaling chapters are interwoven with the narrative of Ahab's quest for the white whale. Through his use of animal imagery, Steinbeck aligns with American naturalists like Frank Norris and may remind readers of some of Ernest Hemingway's fiction.

In both setting and theme, The Grapes of Wrath is closely related to In Dubious Battle. The California backdrop is a common feature in much of Steinbeck's finest fiction, and the focus on marginalized characters struggling to survive in California connects this novel with Tortilla Flat (1935), Of Mice and Men (1937), and other works in Steinbeck's repertoire. The stories in The Long Valley (1938) also belong to this category. In some respects, Steinbeck attempted to replicate the success of The Grapes of Wrath with another lengthy novel, East of Eden (1952). Similar to its predecessor, this novel is set in California and uses the narratives of a family (actually, two families) to explore broader human themes.

Another Steinbeck work that shares a similar technique with The Grapes of Wrath is his documentary film script, The Forgotten Village (1941). In this piece, Steinbeck deliberately aimed to highlight the struggles of Mexican Indians by focusing on the everyday experiences of a single family.

The Grapes of Wrath hadn't been on the shelves for long before Hollywood producer Darryl Zanuck adapted it into a film, featuring Henry Fonda as Tom Joad. Directed by John Ford—who would soon become one of Hollywood's most renowned directors—the movie was a box-office hit. It earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture. Fonda received a nomination for Best Actor, Ford won the Oscar for Best Director, and Jane Darwell, portraying Ma Joad, clinched the Best Supporting Actress award. Steinbeck himself contributed to the production.

The novel's structure was notably altered for the film; much of the final third was reconfigured, resulting in the screen version ending at the government camp. Despite this, the movie, like the book, stirred controversy. Politicians and various civic groups in California and Oklahoma took issue with Steinbeck's depiction of conditions in their states. To avoid complications during filming, Zanuck produced the movie under a false title, Highway 66, until he was prepared to release it.

• The Grapes of Wrath was turned into a film by Twentieth Century Fox in 1940. Directed by John Ford, the movie featured Henry Fonda as Tom Joad, Jane Darwell as Ma Joad, Doris Bowdon as Rose of Sharon, and John Carradine as Jim Casy. Nunnally Johnson wrote the screenplay, and Gregg Toland handled the cinematography. The film earned two Academy Awards: Best Director (John Ford) and Best Supporting Actress (Jane Darwell). It also received two awards from the New York Film Critics Circle in 1940: Best Director (Ford) and Best Film. The film is available from Fox Video, Baker & Taylor Video, and Home Vision Cinema.
• The Grapes of Wrath was also made into an audio cassette (58 minutes), Dolby processed, published by Harper Audio in New York City. Narrated by Henry Fonda, who played Tom Joad in the 1940 film, this audio recording features excerpts from the novel detailing the struggles of the migrants during the 1930s. Released by Harper Audio in 1994.
• Additionally, the novel was adapted into a 58-minute audio cassette by Caedmon Inc. in 1978.

Sources
Angoff, Charles. Review of The Grapes of Wrath. In North American Review, Summer, 1939, p. 387.

Cowley, Malcolm. Review of The Grapes of Wrath. In New Republic, May 3, 1939, p. 382.

Fadiman, Clifton. Review of The Grapes of Wrath. In New Yorker, April 15, 1939, p. 101.

Jackson, Joseph Henry. Review of The Grapes of Wrath. In New York Herald Tribune Books, April 16, 1939, p. 3.

Kronenberger, Louis. Review of The Grapes of Wrath. In Nation, April 15, 1939.

Roscoe, Burton. “Excuse It, Please.” In Newsweek, May 1, 1939, p. 38.

Weeks, Edward. Review of The Grapes of Wrath. In Atlantic Monthly, June, 1939.

For Further Study
Carpenter, Frederick I. “The Philosophical Joads.” In College English, Vol. 2, January, 1941, pp. 324-25. Carpenter explores the roots of Steinbeck’s social philosophy in American thought, tracing influences from Ralph Waldo Emerson to William James.

Eisinger, Chester E. “Jeffersonian Agrarianism in The Grapes of Wrath.” In University of Kansas City Review, Vol. 14, Winter, 1947, pp. 149-54. This critic examines the evolving relationships between people and the land in the twentieth century.

Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy. John Steinbeck: An Introduction and Interpretation. Barnes & Noble, 1963. Fontenrose discusses the novel’s biblical allusions, its mythological connections, and its stylistic elements.

French, Warren, ed. A Companion to The Grapes of Wrath. Penguin, 1989. A compilation of critiques and interpretations of the novel.

Levant, Howard. The Novels of John Steinbeck: A Critical Study. University of Missouri Press, 1974. This collection of essays analyzes the symbolism and allegory in The Grapes of Wrath.

Lisca, Peter. The Wide World of John Steinbeck. Rutgers University Press, 1958. Lisca, a notable Steinbeck critic, delves into Steinbeck’s use of symbolism, political ideas, and his work with migrants.

McCarthy, Paul. John Steinbeck. Ungar, 1980. McCarthy addresses, among other topics, Steinbeck’s biblical references and varied discourse styles in the novel.

Moore, Harry Thornton. The Novels of John Steinbeck: A First Critical Study. Kennikat Press, 1968. Moore examines how the novel impacted migrant workers and compares it to other socially influential literature.

Shockly, Martin Staples. “The Reception of The Grapes of Wrath in Oklahoma.” In American Literature, Vol. 15, January, 1954, pp. 351-61. Shockly explores the reasons behind the novel’s controversial reception in Oklahoma.

Steinbeck, John. Working Days: The Journals of “The Grapes of Wrath,” edited by Robert DeMott. Penguin, 1989. This collection features Steinbeck’s journal entries, documenting his thoughts and physical strain during the writing of the novel.

Wyatt, David. New Essays on “The Grapes of Wrath.” Cambridge University Press, 1990. Wyatt provides a comprehensive review of criticism on the novel spanning from 1940 to 1989.