new era of prosperity for boxers. Louis invigorated the professional boxing scene as he fought his way to the world heavyweight championship in 1937. Known as the Brown Bomber, Louis had significant crowd appeal, and his matches attracted many spectators. In 1938, he triumphed in a symbolic bout against Max Schmeling of Germany, a Nazi Party member, before eighty thousand fans at Yankee Stadium.

Roosevelt and the New Deal

While people sought to escape their difficulties through cinema and sports, the nation’s economy continued its downward spiral. By 1933, unemployment had soared to nearly twenty-five percent. On March 4, 1933, with Franklin Delano Roosevelt's inauguration, Americans found renewed hope. Roosevelt had campaigned and won on the promise to revitalize the economy and create jobs, and he faced a daunting task. He acted swiftly, and during his first three months in office, known as the Hundred Days, he collaborated with Congress to pass an unprecedented volume of legislation. These measures aimed to stabilize and rejuvenate the fragile economy and workforce. The extensive array of programs that emerged from this legislation became known as the New Deal.

Roosevelt and the Labor Issue

One of Roosevelt's main focuses was labor, and his early legislation aimed at both creating jobs and ensuring fair treatment for workers. Through the 1933 National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), Roosevelt ensured employees' rights to collective bargaining, which led to the formation of unions across various industries. Although unions existed before, they were often influenced by businesses and did not always prioritize workers' rights. As part of the NIRA, Roosevelt created the National Recovery Administration (NRA) to help stabilize prices and wages. However, in 1935, the Supreme Court declared the NIRA unconstitutional, leading to the dissolution of the NRA. Consequently, businesses largely ignored the NRA's protections, such as minimum wages and maximum hours, once more.

Labor Unrest

During the 1930s, wages and working hours became central issues in the labor movement. Labor unions grew in political and bargaining power, leading to more frequent clashes with industries. Many new union members were recent immigrants who had faced discrimination both at work and in society, making them ready to fight for their rights. Meanwhile, unions themselves experienced some internal divisions. In 1934 and 1935, the American Federation of Labor (AFL), which represented many older unions organized by skill or craft, had to acknowledge newer unions organized by industry or workplace. As a result, the AFL created the Committee for Industrial Organization to address the needs of these industrial workers. However, this Committee eventually broke away to form a new organization, later known as the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). In the play, Joe’s brother, Frank, is a union organizer for the CIO.

Despite the split between the AFL and CIO, the major conflict remained between unions and industry management. In the mid-1930s, this conflict frequently manifested as strikes, where workers refused to work until their demands were met. Striking workers often marched outside their companies with picket signs. Companies typically retaliated by hiring temporary workers, called scabs, to keep operations running. The most effective form of protest was the sit-down strike, where workers occupied the company premises and barricaded themselves inside, preventing scabs from entering. Although these strikes—ultimately deemed unconstitutional—often resulted in violence involving strikers, industry management, hired thugs, police, and even the National Guard, they were highly successful in pushing management to negotiate contracts. In 1938, as part of the Second New Deal's wave of reforms, Roosevelt signed the Fair Labor Standards Act, establishing federal guidelines for minimum wages and maximum hours.

The Beginning of World War II

There is still ongoing debate about the extent to which Roosevelt's wide-ranging reforms contributed to ending the Great Depression. Most historians concur that although these initiatives did assist in providing jobs and stabilizing the economy, along with creating significant agencies, it was the outbreak of World War II in Europe in 1939 that truly revitalized the economy. The surge in wartime production across America led to many unemployed individuals finding work, effectively bringing the Great Depression to an end.

Social Drama

Odets gained prominence through his early social dramas, which openly encouraged people to stand up for their rights by engaging in strikes and protests. Although later works like Golden Boy are less direct in these themes, some critics still label them as social dramas because they embody the same essence as his earlier pieces. For instance, in Golden Boy, Joe is terrified of poverty—a widespread issue during the 1930s, the era of the Great Depression when the play is set. While explaining his motives for wanting to fight, Joe tells his father, “Do you think I like this feeling of no possessions?” Joe views boxing as a more viable escape from the poverty affecting him and his family and is thus willing to give up his passion for music. This tragic choice highlights the struggle of the working class, which often finds itself forced to prioritize financial stability over personal dreams.

The play also touches on other social issues, such as the conflicts between labor unions and industry management. Joe’s brother, Frank, is an organizer for the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and frequently goes away to mediate disputes between striking workers and their employers. When Frank is introduced, he remarks, “There’s hell down there in tex-tiles,” referring to a strike occurring at a textile company in the South. In the play's final scene, it's noted in the stage directions that Frank has “a bandage around his head.” Later, after Fuseli mentions it, Siggie, Frank’s brother-in-law, explains to Fuseli, “They gave it to him in a strike.” The “They” likely refers to hired enforcers, police, or the National Guard—groups often used to violently suppress strikes if needed. Through these images and dialogues, Odets clearly aims to convey a social message about the labor issues of his era.

Language

Critics frequently praise Odets for his skillful use of language. In many of his plays, characters communicate in ways that are both realistic and distinctive, and this play is no exception. A particularly notable example is the Italian accent and fragmented speech of Joe's father, Mr. Bonaparte. From Mr. Bonaparte's introduction, the stage directions specify that he ‘‘talks with an Italian accent.’’ His dialogue, often abbreviated compared to standard English, further highlights this, such as when he says, ‘‘I don’t go in taxicab business.’’ Typically, one would say, ‘‘I don’t want to go into the taxicab business.’’ Additionally, Mr. Bonaparte sometimes adds extra letters to his words and uses unique word constructions. For instance, in another scene, he remarks, ‘‘I don’t expects for Joe to drive taxi.’’ The added ‘‘s’’ on ‘‘expect’’ and the unusual use of ‘‘for’’ provide Joe’s father with a distinctive, foreign speech pattern, even without the accent. While characters outside Joe's family mock Mr. Bonaparte’s way of speaking, his language is crucial. It vividly symbolizes Italy's old-world values, sharply contrasting with America's capitalist ideals. Beyond Mr. Bonaparte, Odets also employs language creatively, such as Fuseli's gangster-style street talk.

Foreshadowing

In the play, Odets uses clear foreshadowing techniques to hint at future events. This is most evident in the deaths of Joe and the Baltimore Chocolate Drop. In the opening scene, Moody mentions to Lorna about ‘‘Cy Webster who got himself killed in a big, red Stutz.’’ While this reference to a deceased boxer might not immediately suggest Joe's fate, it is reinforced by several other allusions. In the first act's fourth scene, Joe expresses to Lorna his desire for a fast car, stating: ‘‘Those cars are poison in my blood,’’ and ‘‘Gee, I like to stroke that gas!’’ Additional references to fast cars, speeding, and the associated dangers, mostly made by Joe's managers, further build this theme. Moody remarks: ‘‘But you and your speeding worries me!’’ Consequently, Joe's eventual death in an automobile accident should not be unexpected, as the possibility has been subtly suggested to the audience from the play's outset.

Another significant death in the play is the demise of the Chocolate Drop in the boxing ring, which, although not as explicitly foreshadowed as Joe's death, is still hinted at. The play progressively intensifies its violence, becoming more brutal as it unfolds. This escalation suggests that the ultimate act of violence—killing—might be imminent. Additionally, Fuseli makes a direct allusion to murder in the fourth scene of the second act when he instructs Joe to: ‘‘Go out there and kill Lombardo! Send him out to Woodlawn! Tear his skull off!’’ These mentions of death and burial foreshadow the eventual killing of the Chocolate Drop by Joe at the play's conclusion.

1930s: The Great Depression starts soon after the 1929 Stock Market Crash and persists throughout the decade, devastating the financial well-being of numerous Americans.

Today: The United States is facing a recession, which many attribute to the collapse of excessively valued stocks, particularly in Internet-based companies. A significant number of Americans see their retirement funds or other savings vanish due to these failed investments.

1930s: Roosevelt introduces the New Deal programs as temporary relief measures to help Americans recover. While he supports federal aid for individuals, he emphasizes initiatives that promote employment, aiming to restore people's self-reliance.

Today: Welfare programs, a lasting impact of the New Deal, have been largely dismantled. Many who previously relied on welfare benefits are now compelled to join the workforce.

1930s: During the Depression, many seek to escape the hardships of daily life by attending movies, sporting events, and other forms of entertainment.

Today: Reality television shows such as CBS's immensely popular Survivor spark a major shift in television programming.

The film adaptation of Golden Boy was released in 1939 by Columbia Pictures. Directed by Rouben Mamoulian, the movie stars William Holden as Joe Bonaparte and Barbara Stanwyck as Lorna Moon. You can find it on video through Columbia Tristar Home Video.

In 1964, Golden Boy was transformed into a Broadway musical, enjoying a run of over 500 performances. Produced by Hillard Elkins, the musical starred Sammy Davis Jr., an African-American actor, in the role of Joe Bonaparte. This casting choice led to significant changes in the original storyline by introducing racial themes. The musical addressed various racial issues, including interracial relationships. It was also notable for having one of Broadway's first racially integrated casts and an African-American music conductor, George Rhodes. The musical's book was co-written by Clifford Odets and William Gibson and published by Samuel French in 1965, although it is currently out of print. The score was composed by Charles Strouse with lyrics by Lee Adams. An original cast recording was released on CD in 1999 and is available through Razor & Tie.

SOURCES

Demastes, William W., ‘‘Clifford Odets (1906–1963),’’ in American Playwrights, 1880–1945, Greenwood Press, 1995, p. 318.

Hughes, Catharine, ‘‘Odets: The Price of Success,’’ in Commonweal, Vol. LXXVIII, No. 21, September 20, 1963, pp. 558–60.

Isaacs, Edith J. R., ‘‘When Good Men Get Together,’’ in Theatre Arts Monthly, Vol. XXII, No. 1, January 1938, pp. 11–13.

Krutch, Joseph Wood, ‘‘Two Legends,’’ in the Nation, Vol. 145, No. 20, November 13, 1937, pp. 539–40.

Lewis, Allan, ‘‘The Survivors of the Depression—Hellman, Odets, Shaw,’’ in his American Plays and Playwrights of the Contemporary Theatre, revised edition, Crown, 1970, pp. 99–115. Mendelsohn, Michael J., Clifford Odets: Humane Dramatist, Everett/Edwards, Inc., 1969, p. 44.

Odets, Clifford, Golden Boy, in Waiting for Lefty and Other Plays, Grove Press, 1993.

———, ‘‘How a Playwright Triumphs,’’ in Harper’s Magazine, Vol. 233, No. 1396, September 1966, pp. 64–70, 73–74.

Peary, Gerald, ‘‘Odets of Hollywood,’’ in Sight and Sound, Vol. 56, No. 1, Winter 1986–1987, pp. 59–63.

Shuman, R. Baird, Clifford Odets, Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1962, pp. 80, 83.

FURTHER READING

Erem, Suzan, Labor Pains: Inside America’s New Union Movement, Monthly Review Press, 2001. In this book, Erem, a labor organizer, offers an insider’s perspective on the challenges faced by both organizers and union members today. Besides advocating for improved wages and working conditions, Erem describes the internal conflicts that occur.

Horne, Gerald, Class Struggle in Hollywood, 1930–1950: Moguls, Mobsters, Stars, Reds, & Trade Unionists, University of Texas Press, 2001. Horne explores the often overlooked narrative of the Hollywood studio strikes that captured attention in the 1940s. The book examines the studios’ efforts to suppress the growth of independent unions, often labeling them as Communist. However, this was just one facet of a complex situation, and Horne provides a comprehensive analysis of all perspectives, utilizing a wealth of historical records to support his claims.

Kennedy, David M., Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945, Oxford History of the United States series, Vol. 9, Oxford University Press, 2001. Kennedy, a history professor at Stanford University, documents the years of the Great Depression and World War II, occasionally presenting theories that challenge conventional interpretations. This accessible and detailed study is based on a wide array of both published materials and primary sources to reconstruct this pivotal era in American history.

Morreale, Ben, and Robert Carola, Italian Americans: The Immigrant Experience, Immigrant Experience series, Hugh Lauter Levin Associates, 2000. This book provides a comprehensive overview of how Italian Americans first arrived in the United States and their experiences over the years. It also discusses the influence Italian Americans have had on American culture, featuring notable Italian-American entertainers, entrepreneurs, and sports figures. The book is richly illustrated with over two hundred color and black-and-white photographs that vividly depict the immigrant experience.

Ruiz, Vicki L., Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930–1950, University of New Mexico Press, 1987. This book narrates the experiences of several women in Southern California during the 1930s and 1940s who united to form powerful labor unions within the seasonal canning industry. These women eventually succeeded in negotiating contracts that included benefits such as maternity leave, paid vacations, and company-sponsored childcare.

Waldvogel, Merikay, Soft Covers for Hard Times: Quiltmaking & the Great Depression, Rutledge Hill Press, 1990. Waldvogel delves into the world of quiltmaking during the Great Depression, highlighting how groups of women would gather to quilt, share their struggles, and exchange survival tips. Despite the challenges they faced, the quilts from this era were colorful and beautiful, reflecting the hope many held for better days ahead. The book features numerous photographs of quilts from this time period.