the Nag Hammadi texts, however, readers now can judge for themselves the main concerns of Gnostic theology and philosophy. It is evident that the Gnostics were not exclusively, as scholars had previously believed, a Hellenistic-oriented sect dabbling with Christian notions; instead, they were assuredly Christians representing a minority movement that challenged the hierarchy and many dogmas of the fledgling Church.

Documenting her case with sound evidence derived from the early social history of the universal Church, Pagels shows how the Gnostic gospels threatened the majority viewpoint on at least six major theological points (to each of which she devotes a chapter): that Christ’s Resurrection should be considered as a symbolic instead of historical event; that no direct Apostolic line of succession should be traced, as proof of divine authority, from Peter to the bishops of the Church; that God the Father has a feminine aspect as Grace; that Christian martyrdom is not a necessary test of salvation; that the universal Church lacks power to guide congregants to spiritual wisdom; and finally, that the surest guide to spirituality is self-knowledge, Gnosis as God-knowledge. As a Church historian, Pagels argues that such a challenge by the Gnostics threatened both the political and theological supremacy of the Apostolic line. To establish upon a secure foundation their spiritual authority, the early Church Fathers reacted against the Gnostics by sharply dogmatizing their own positions. As a result, therefore, of nearly two centuries of antagonism between majority and minority Christian viewpoints, the victorious Catholic theologians formulated a number of arguments partly in opposition to Gnostic teachings.

For the general reader, Pagels’ discussion of early Church history not only illuminates the social and intellectual background of the Gnostic gospels; but her analysis also throws a powerful light upon the canon of Christian Scriptures. She proves, for example, that many “gospels”—not merely the four Gospels of the New Testament—had been extant during the first two centuries and were available both to Christian and Gnostic-oriented communities. Also, she suggests that the selection of texts for the authorized Bible may have been a process involving political as well as theological considerations. More startling to the general reader, perhaps, are Pagels’ remarks, presented casually as though they were common knowledge, upon the authorship of the Greek Scriptures. “Few today believe,” she writes, “that contemporaries of Jesus actually wrote the New Testament gospels. Although Irenaeus, defending their exclusive legitimacy, insisted that they were written by Jesus’ own followers, we know virtually nothing about the persons who wrote the gospels we call Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.” Or she describes as “pseudo-Pauline” the Timothy letters ascribed in the New Testament to Paul. To be sure, Pagels has no intention of shocking or antagonizing the lay reader. Her problem is one of communicating to a larger audience of intelligent persons a body of information understood by only a relatively small number of theological scholars who have sufficient technical linguistic mastery of the original writings to examine them as documents.

For this specialized group of scholars, Pagels contributes a major unifying thesis—that the Gnostic gospels can best be understood in their historical setting as a reaction to political forces within early Christianity. Outside the scope of her study are a number of other significant matters: the relationship between the Gnostic gospels and Hellenistic philosophy; between the gospels and Eastern (especially Hindu but also Zoroastrian) religions; between the gospels and first and second century Judaism; between the gospels and mystic cults of various kinds from Persia to Egypt; and between the gospels as they survived in oral tradition and the sixth century Koran, with its apparently Gnostic-influenced view of Jesus. Also Pagels leaves to other scholars some intriguing questions on the exact dating of texts. She quotes, presumably with assent, Harvard professor Helmut H. Koester’s suggestion that the Gospel of Thomas, compiled circa 140, may include some sayings of Jesus even older than those of the Gospels of the New Testament, “possibly as early as the second half of the first century.” If that judgment is accurate, the Gospel of Thomas would contain materials, Pagels writes, “as early as, or earlier than Mark, Matthew, Luke and John.” Such an assessment, obviously, would require a substantial rethinking of New Testament data in the light of Gnostic influence. Yet Pagels usually avoids speculation on subjects outside her own specialty as a social historian of Gnosticism and early Christianity.

Within this highly technical field, she understands and expresses with admirable precision the general message of the Gnostic texts, details the intellectual background of their composition, and contrasts them to orthodox Christian writing. In addition, she shows how the Gnostic gospels, although centuries old, still have modern-day relevance. For these judgments she is bound to incite the most heated dissent among fellow scholars. Although Pagels insists that she does not, “as the casual reader might assume, . . . advocate going back to gnosticism—much less that I ’side with it’ against orthodox Christianity,” her argument does establish an attractive picture of the Gnostics. She sees their independence in many ways resembling that of the historical Protestant movement. With their emphasis upon the light of individual conscience as opposed to the authority of dogma, their opposition to hierarchical ecclesiastic structure, and their “insistence on the primacy of immediate experience” instead of the offices of the Church for salvation, the Gnostics appear to have links to other liberal Christians, both of the past and the present. Moreover, in their insistence upon a strong spiritual role for women, their celebration of the “greatness of human nature,” and their high valuation of self-awareness as the beginning of enlightenment, they seem to resemble modern identity-searchers in a world of psychological stress.

Although Pagels may be guilty of exaggerating a case for the relevancy of the Gnostics to current theological problems, her book clearly demonstrates how the origins of Christianity and Gnosticism had a common root. “If we go back,” she writes, “to the earliest known sources of Christian tradition—the sayings of Jesus (although scholars disagree on the question of which sayings are genuinely authentic), we can see how both gnostic and orthodox forms of Christianity could emerge as variant interpretations of the teaching and significance of Christ.” To explore fully these variant interpretations, Pagels’ book performs the admirable service of showing how and why the two forms of Christianity diverged into competing traditions.

Christianity in the Second Century
Jerusalem, located in Palestine, was the birthplace of Christianity until the Roman army demolished the city around A.D. 70. From there, the new faith spread to regions around the Mediterranean and throughout the Roman Empire. Up until the second century, most followers were Jews who viewed Christianity as fulfilling promises made in the Old Testament. By the mid-second century, orthodox Christian communities began to establish structured hierarchies with bishops taking on leadership roles.

Gnostic Christians asserted that they had privileged knowledge about God and spirituality, distinguishing them from orthodox Christians. Gnosticism incorporated philosophical aspects from a diverse range of sources, such as Asian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Greek religions, along with Judaism and Christianity. Orthodox Christians viewed Gnostics as heretics for several reasons, including their interpretation of the Bible, their rejection of church authority, and their belief that understanding God could be achieved independently of the church's guidance. Unlike orthodox Christians, Gnostics were selective about their membership, requiring individuals to demonstrate religious maturity, holiness, and an in-depth grasp of their secret teachings. Gnosticism lacked a centralized organization, but teachers like Valentinus and Marcion propagated its diverse teachings, as referenced in The Gnostic Gospels. By the sixth century, Gnosticism had nearly vanished.

In the early days, Christianity existed in many varied forms, particularly during the second and third centuries. However, practicing any form of Christianity within the Roman Empire was illegal and sometimes resulted in execution. Christians typically gathered in homes. In The Gnostic Gospels, Pagels highlights the dilemma many Christians faced—whether to confess their faith in Jesus and risk martyrdom—which was a point of contention between orthodox Christians and their Gnostic counterparts. Few Gnostics chose martyrdom, which orthodox Christians saw as a lack of faith, further labeling them as heretics. By the early fourth century, Roman Emperor Constantine had embraced Christianity. By the time of his death in 337, the orthodox Christian church had become the official religion of the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire
The beginnings of the Roman Empire, a formidable political entity that endured for almost five centuries, are generally traced back to 27 B.C. This was when the Roman Senate bestowed the title of Augustus upon Gaius Octavius, declaring him the first Roman Emperor. Through a series of wars and territorial expansions, the empire extended from its initial base around Italy and the Mediterranean to encompass vast regions, including Britain, Spain, North Africa, Romania, Western Asia, and the Middle East. The empire permitted its conquered populations to maintain most of their diverse languages, cultures, and religious practices. During the first and second centuries, Greek art, literature, and philosophy prospered under Roman governance; Babylonian astronomy and astrology thrived; and eventually, Christianity emerged as the dominant religion after Constantine's conversion in the early 300s.

Known as the "good emperors," the five rulers from A.D. 98 to 180 presided over what many historians consider the zenith of the Roman Empire. It is around this time that experts believe the Nag Hammadi texts were composed. For instance, Trajan (98-117) showed concern for the impoverished, and some historians suggest he did not actively pursue Christian persecution. Hadrian (117-138) reformed the empire's civil administration and established an extensive road network across the empire. However, during this era, millions of slaves were captured and detained; women lacked political rights; a plague decimated one-third of the population in the empire's western territories; and Romans executed Christians and expelled Jews from their homeland in the Middle East.

Second Century A.D.: The Roman Empire encompasses much of Europe and other regions, successfully integrating people from a variety of cultures, many of which speak their own local languages.

Today: Europe is home to a multitude of languages, and most students learn at least one foreign language in addition to their native language. The European Union is working to standardize trade by adopting the euro as the primary currency for most European countries.

Second Century A.D.: Although aristocratic women in the Roman Empire can exert political influence through their husbands or sons, they are not permitted to hold political office themselves.

Today: Women occupy numerous roles in European parliaments. For instance, Italy's Ministers for Equal Opportunity and Education are women, and women make up 18 percent of the British Parliament's membership.

Second Century A.D.: Christians in the Roman Empire are a small minority, facing persecution and torture for refusing to engage in the religious practices of Roman polytheistic religions and the emperor cult.

Today: Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, with approximately 80 percent of the population identifying as Christians.

Second Century A.D.: Christians bury their dead in underground catacombs, adorned with intricate wall paintings. These catacombs also serve as sanctuaries for persecuted Christians, as Roman law considers burial sites to be inviolable.

Today: Catacombs throughout Europe draw hundreds of thousands of tourists each year. Video tours of various catacombs are also available.

Sources
Bloom, Harold, The American Religion: The Emergence of the Post-Christian Nation, Simon & Schuster, 1992, pp.11–49.

Brown, Raymond E., ‘‘The Christians Who Lost Out,’’ in New York Times Book Review, Vol. 85, January 20, 1980, pp. 3, 33.

Chadwick, Henry, "The Paths of Heresy," in Times Literary Supplement, No. 4017, March 21, 1990, p. 309.

Crisler, B. Cobbey, ‘‘Gnostic 'Books,'’’ in the Christian Science Monitor, December 3, 1979, p. B6.

Jenkins, Philip, ‘‘Hiding and Seeking,’’ in Hidden Gospels: How the Search for Jesus Lost Its Way, Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 7.

Maccoby, Hyam, "Counter-Church," in Commentary, Vol. 69, No. 6, June, 1980, pp. 86-88.

McVey, Kathleen, ‘‘Gnosticism, Feminism, and Elaine Pagels,’’ in Theology Today, Vol. 37, No. 4, January 1981, pp. 498-501.

Pagels, Elaine, The Gnostic Gospels, Random House, 1979, pp. xi-xix, xxxvi, 69, 142, 149, 150, 151.

Rudolph, Kurt, ‘‘The Heresiological Literature and the Older History of Research,’’ in Gnosis: The Nature and History of Gnosticism, HarperCollins, 1984, p. 15.

----, ‘‘Presuppositions and Causes: The Problem of Origins,’’ in Gnosis: The Nature and History of Gnosticism, Harper Collins, 1984, p. 291.

Schuessler, Jenny, ‘‘No Sympathy for the Devil,’’ in Publishers Weekly, Vol. 242, No. 31, pp. 11-59.

Singer, June, ‘‘Frontiers of Science,’’ in Seeing through the Visible World: Jung, Gnosis, and Chaos, Harper & Row, 1990, p. 51.

Further Reading
Armstrong, Karen, A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Ballantine Books, 1994.
Karen Armstrong, a former nun and British journalist, explores the history of monotheistic religions over the last 4,000 years. She delves into the interconnected histories of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and also discusses mysticism, the philosophy of religion, and the concept of the death of God.

Meyer, Melvin, trans., The Secret Teachings of Jesus: Four Gnostic Gospels, Vintage Books, 1986.
Melvin Meyer provides a new English translation of four early Christian Gnostic writings, aimed at a general audience.

Robinson, James E., ed., The Nag Hammadi Library in English, Harper, 1990.
This is the English translation of the Nag Hammadi texts discovered in Egypt in 1945, comprising numerous Gnostic and other religious writings. Initially published in 1977, this edition is the revised 1988 version, complete with introductions to each document.

Scarre, Christopher, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome, Penguin, 1995.
This atlas, featuring graphics and text, provides a comprehensive overview of Roman history from the eighth century B.C. through the emergence of Christianity.