later, Bishop Ignatius contended that these three church roles mirrored the divine hierarchy of heaven.

Valentinus's Gnostics held that the God seen as the master and creator was a lesser "divine being," a demiurge, and those who worshipped this image were misguided. Pagels notes that this God acted "as the instrument of the higher powers." Through special initiations and a secret sacrament, Gnostics could attain gnosis, or insight, which liberated them from the demiurge's influence, enabling them to worship "the higher powers." Orthodox Christianity viewed this as threatening because, according to Pagels, the gnosis "provides a theological basis for defying the bishops and priests!"

Chapter 3: God the Father/God the Mother

Although many religions contemporary with early Christianity included a female deity, Christianity did not. However, in Gnostic writings, God is frequently depicted as a "dyad" incorporating both male and female traits. Pagels explains that while the Gnostic texts vary in their portrayal of the divine Mother, they generally follow three themes: firstly, "the divine Mother is part of the original couple"; secondly, she is considered one-third of the Christian trinity as a spirit; and thirdly, she symbolizes wisdom and enlightens humanity through her actions.

Pagels questions why almost all female imagery had vanished from Christianity by the end of the second century. She observes that the inclusion of the feminine aspect of God brought positive outcomes for the Gnostic sects. Specifically, these groups often attracted many women by allowing them greater participation in teaching, prophesying, and leadership roles compared to orthodox Christianity. The second century was a time of social transformation regarding gender roles and Christianity's "shift from lower to middle class." The Gnostic gospels reflect these changes in their depiction of the relationship between Jesus' male and female followers.

Chapter 4: The Passion of Christ and the Persecution of Christians

Early Christians had varied interpretations of Christ's crucifixion. Many Gnostic Christians believed that Christ did not actually die a physical death because he was not truly human but a purely spiritual entity who merely appeared to have a physical form. This perspective is documented in a Gnostic text known as the Acts of John, which was discovered before the Nag Hammadi findings. Other Gnostics, such as Valentinus's followers, thought that since Christ embodied both humanity and divinity, he experienced suffering and death as a human, but the "divine spirit within him could not die." In this way, Christ transcended death. Orthodox Christianity insisted that believers accept that Christ suffered as a human, that his crucifixion was a real historical event, and that any other interpretation was considered heretical.

In the first and second centuries, Roman authorities persecuted and executed many Christians, both orthodox and Gnostic. Pagels notes that members of both groups reacted differently to the threat of torture, death, and martyrdom, based on their understanding of Christ's death and martyrdom. However, martyrdom was uncommon among Gnostics. Gnostics viewed Christ's crucifixion as "an occasion for discovering the divine within," whereas orthodox Christians saw it as redeeming humanity from sin. Pagels argues that the orthodox perspective on martyrdom and Christ's death prevailed because reports of Christian persecutions helped unify the widespread orthodox community and impressed those who witnessed the Christians' devotion to Christ, leading to conversions. Orthodox teachings emphasized Christ's physical body and humanity, and "far more people identified with the orthodox portrait than with the 'bodiless spirit' of Gnostic tradition."

Chapter 5: Whose Church Is the "True Church?"

Texts found at Nag Hammadi have shown that Gnostics criticized orthodox Christianity. Both groups were convinced that their church and spiritual approach were the only correct ones.

Orthodox Christians welcomed anyone who professed belief in Christ, underwent baptism, participated in worship, accepted the New Testament, and, crucially, respected the church hierarchy's authority. Gnostics, however, dismissed these criteria as invalid, restricting membership to those who demonstrated "spiritual maturity, insight, or personal holiness." According to Pagels, the orthodox church—aiming to be more universal, or catholic—"rejected all forms of elitism, attempting to include as many as possible within its embrace." She suggests that their successful efforts to unify and include helped suppress Gnosticism and sustain an institutional form of Christianity for centuries.

Chapter 6: Gnosis: Self-Knowledge as Knowledge of God

Both Gnostic and orthodox Christians drew teachings from the Gospel of John in the New Testament, but each group interpreted the text in distinct ways. Orthodox Christians argued that John supported their belief that God and enlightenment could only be accessed through Jesus and the church. In contrast, Gnostics included John alongside other Gnostic texts, like the Gospel of Thomas and Dialogue of the Savior, to back their belief that individuals could find God and guidance within themselves.

Gnostics held that ignorance, rather than sin, was the root of human suffering, differing from orthodox beliefs. They believed that by gaining self-knowledge, suffering could be diminished or eliminated. Pagels points out that in this respect, "the gnostic movement shared certain affinities with contemporary methods of exploring the self through psycho-therapeutic techniques." Similarly, Gnostics often mocked the orthodox belief that the kingdom of God was a physical location and that its arrival would be a historical event. Pagels suggests that Gnosticism should be viewed as more than just a reaction against orthodoxy, but rather as "a religious perspective that implicitly opposed the development of the kind of institution that became the early catholic church." However, Gnosticism was "no match" for the well-organized institution that the orthodox church evolved into, as "ideas alone do not make a religion powerful; equally important are social and political structures that identify and unite a people into a common affiliation," Pagels asserts.

Conclusion

Pagels observes that "it is the winners who write history—their way," and suggests that the Nag Hammadi texts imply that if Christianity had remained "multiform" and not become Catholic, it might have evolved very differently or even ceased to exist centuries ago. The Gnostics promoted a philosophy that encouraged personal pursuit of religious enlightenment, whereas orthodox Christians followed a more communal approach, which proved to be their strength and key to success. The Nag Hammadi texts underscore the debates that characterized early Christianity and continue to influence much of today's religious discourse.