Barrios, a pioneer of the psychological novel, who harnessed naturalist techniques to delve into the human psyche.

Rojas emerged as a significant short story writer of his time, steering clear of the grotesque elements that characterized some of his contemporaries' works. His narratives focused on the daily struggles of the lower classes, portraying them with a sympathetic lens. Rojas broke ground as the first Chilean writer to utilize a subjective narrator, one who participates in the story's action, unlike the objective narrator of "The Glass of Milk," who refrains from passing judgments.

The latter part of the Naturalist Period also featured writers like Juan Marín and Salvador Reyes, who boldly criticized the dire working conditions in Chile's mining industry, leading to government condemnation upon publication.

Early in his career, Rojas was an active member of the Anarchist opposition party, contributing his writings to opposition newspapers. Through his works, he sought to highlight the struggles of the working class and advocate for their improved living conditions, themes that resonate throughout his novels and short stories.

Rojas’ pioneering works cast a vivid spotlight on the lives of the underprivileged, the rotos (the broken ones), capturing their essence with profound empathy. His remarkable skill in bringing these overlooked individuals to life ‘‘earned him a vaunted place among Chilean novelists,’’ praised Grafton J. Conliffe. Jaime Concha went further, hailing him as ‘‘the outstanding Chilean writer of the first half of the 20th century.’’ In 1957, he was honored with the Chilean National Prize for Literature.

Although deeply rooted in Chilean soil, his narratives resonated far beyond its borders, garnering international acclaim. The universality of his characters transcends cultural barriers, imparting what Fernando Alegría termed ‘‘lessons about humanity.’’ This broad appeal has seen his stories translated into numerous languages, including English, and his short stories frequently grace anthologies worldwide.

Literary Style

Manuel Rojas embarked on his literary journey amidst the Naturalist Period, a defining era in Chilean literature where the raw and often harsh realities of life were laid bare. Naturalism, an intense form of Realism, delves into the grim facets of human existence. The narratives born during this time painted vivid portraits of individuals trapped in the lowest rungs of society, their actions frequently steeped in unpleasantness.

Point of View

In "The Glass of Milk," the tale unfolds through the eyes of a limited third-person narrator, sometimes known as a non-participant observer. This perspective, while usually omniscient, grants the storyteller in this case a narrower lens, focusing solely on the internal world of the young protagonist. The narrator remains an outsider, privy to the actions of all, yet withholding the inner thoughts of characters other than the youth.

Setting

The backdrop of this narrative is a bustling seaport along Chile's rugged coastline. The scene is set amidst the wharfs and adjacent streets, with a quaint milk bar nestled along a side alley. Rojas refrains from lavishing the reader with intricate details, yet he crafts enough of a picture to evoke the gritty essence of this neighborhood.

Irony

Rojas' work is laced with irony, a literary device where the true meaning is often at odds with the surface impression. In "The Glass of Milk," the youth's denial of hunger, despite being wracked with it, serves as a poignant example. Through this contradiction, he strives to cling to his dignity, masking his desperation with brave words.

Symbolism

In literature, symbols are objects that convey deeper meanings. The burlap heap stands as a metaphor for the laborious life the youth is destined to return to by the story's end. Meanwhile, the gazes of the youth, the woman, and the old man act as windows to the soul, offering glimpses into the deeper reaches of their beings.

Early Twentieth Century: The 1920s and 1930s in Chile were marked by a whirlwind of economic and political chaos. By the mid-1930s, the global shockwaves of the Great Depression had carved deep scars into the nation, particularly affecting the working class. This period was marred by violent political upheavals, which set the stage for a series of ineffective presidencies.

Late Twentieth Century: As the 1990s unfolded, Chile's political landscape began to stabilize. The oppressive regime of Augusto Pinochet was dismantled in 1990, paving the way for democratic elections in 1999, with a newly elected government taking the reins in early 2000.

Early Twentieth Century: Amidst the turbulence of the 1920s and 1930s, Chile's literary scene was just beginning to flourish. Manuel Rojas emerged as a towering figure of this era, shaping the nation's literary voice.

Late Twentieth Century: The 1990s ushered in a fresh wave of writers who left indelible marks on both Chilean and global literature. This new generation cast their creative gaze upon the political turmoil from 1973 to 1985, exploring themes of internal repression and exile. During this time, folk literature resonated with audiences both within Chile and beyond its borders.

Early Twentieth Century: In the 1930s, the laboring masses found themselves subjugated by the twin forces of political authority and the elite business owners.

Late Twentieth Century: By the 1990s, Chile had achieved a newfound political stability. Though the economic landscape was not without its challenges, it began to nurture a burgeoning middle class. Workers enjoyed improved wages and greater opportunities to savor the benefits of their earnings.

Sources

Cannizzo, Mary, in Hispania, Vol. 41, May, 1958, pp. 200-01; collected in Modern Latin American Literature, edited by David William Foster and Virginia Ramos Foster, Frederick Ungar, 1975, pp. 273-77.

Castro, Raoul Silva, Historia crítica de la novela chilena (1843-1956), Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, 1960, pp. 319,326-27; collected in Modern Latin American Literature, edited by David William Foster and Virginia Ramos Foster, Frederick Ungar, 1975, pp. 273-77.

Concha, Jaime, "Manuel Rojas," in Encyclopedia of Latin American Literature, edited by Verity Smith, Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997, pp. 724-25.

Conliffe, Grafton J., trans., Introduction to "The Man and the Rose," in Latin American Literary Review, Vol. 18, No. 36, July/December, 1990, pp. 78-86.

Goic, Cedomil, "Chile," in Encyclopedia of Latin American Literature, edited by Verity Smith, Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997, pp. 195-201.

Lichtblau, Myron I., in Modern Latin American Literature, edited by David William Foster and Virginia Ramos Foster, Frederick Ungar, 1975, pp. 273-77.

----, "Ironic Devices in Manuel Rojas' Hijo de ladrón," in Symposium, Fall, 1965, pp. 214-25.

Lindstrom, Naomi, "Realism and Naturalism," in Twentieth Century Spanish American Fiction, University of Texas Press, Austin, 1994, pp. 52-3.

"Manuel Rojas," in An Anthology of Spanish American Literature, edited by E. Herman Hespelt, F. S. Crofts and Co., 1946, p. 707.

Richardson, Maurice, in Modern Latin American Literature, edited by David William Foster and Virginia Ramos Foster, Frederick Ungar, 1975, pp. 273-77.

Scott, Robert, "The Psychological Conflict in Manuel Rojas: El vaso deleche," in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. 24, No. 1, Winter, 1987, pp. 49-56.

Waag, Michael, Chairman, Department of Foreign Languages, and Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Murray State University, interview conducted March 28, 2000.

Further Reading

Fleak, Kenneth, The Chilean Short Story: Writers from the Generation of 1950, Peter Lang, 1989. Chapter Two contains a section of general information on Manuel Rojas and his impact on Chilean short fiction.

Goic, Cedomil, "Chile," in Encyclopedia of Latin American Literature, pp. 195-201. This section from the Encyclopedia of Latin American Literature contains information that gives a broad overview of Chilean literature from the beginning of the nineteenth century up to the end of the twentieth century.