1955, the Atomic Energy Commission claimed, "the scare stories about how dangerous this country's atomic tests are simply not justified," denying that radiation posed health risks. Despite this assurance, Americans were encouraged to construct air-raid shelters to protect themselves in the event of a nuclear attack.

"Gimpel the Fool" follows Gimpel, a baker living in the village of Frampol. Despite being teased and tricked by the villagers since childhood, he maintains his belief in the goodness of people and life itself.

Setting

The narrative unfolds in an unspecified era within the fictional Jewish shtetl, or village, of Frampol in Poland. As is typical in Singer's works, Frampol is depicted as a place imbued with a mystical essence, where the inhabitants are superstitious, life is challenging, and daily activities and concerns are deeply intertwined with Jewish faith and customs.

Narrative

The story is narrated solely from Gimpel's perspective, making it a first-person narrative. Since readers only access Gimpel's thoughts and emotions, and not those of the villagers who often mock him, they are left questioning the reliability of Gimpel's account and whether he is truly a fool. Singer employs a straightforward storytelling method in "Gimpel the Fool," recounting events in a linear sequence with minimal explanation and presenting characters without extensive description.

Parable

"Gimpel the Fool" is classified as a parable because it aims to impart a moral lesson. Parables typically feature simple characters symbolizing abstract concepts. In this story, Gimpel embodies goodness, innocence, and the common man, while the villagers symbolize malice and deceit. The tale operates on two levels: it appears to be a straightforward story about a village fool but also addresses profound questions about wisdom, faith, and acceptance.

Irony

Singer weaves irony, the recognition of a reality different from appearance, throughout "Gimpel the Fool." This is evident from the story's opening line: "I am Gimpel the Fool. I don't think myself a fool. On the contrary. But that's what folks call me." This hints to the reader that Gimpel might not be the fool he seems. As the narrative progresses, Gimpel reveals that he doesn't always believe what the villagers tell him, even though they assume he does. For instance, when Elka claims Gimpel is the father of her child born four months after their marriage, Gimpel appears to accept her explanation but later admits, "To tell the plain truth, I didn't believe her.... But then, who really knows how such things are?" Ironically, when Gimpel leaves Frampol, where he was ridiculed and mistreated, he becomes a respected and beloved storyteller. Near the story's end, Gimpel observes, "The children run after me, calling 'Grandfather, tell us a story.'"

Archetype

Gimpel is an archetypal character, a type that frequently appears in literature. He represents the "common man" figure, which is prevalent in both Yiddish and Western literary traditions. Additionally, he embodies the schlemiel, or "holy fool," whose innocence and goodness bring both humor and inspiration.

Singer relies heavily on the technique of local color in his stories, infusing them with an East European essence where Jewish culture is pivotal. Elements such as Talmudic study, religious faith, and matchmakers are fundamental aspects of his narratives. Prior to the publication of "Gimpel the Fool," critics perceived Singer as a Yiddish writer whose works were primarily appreciated by Jewish readers. However, the success of "Gimpel the Fool" propelled Singer into the international arena, leading readers to recognize the universal themes in his writing. Despite this, "Gimpel the Fool" remains deeply rooted in Polish culture and features a plot that is perhaps only conceivable within a Jewish community.

Singer's characters, often narrating in the first person, are highly self-aware and engage readers by addressing them directly. For instance, the narrator of "The Unseen" starts with, "They say that I, the evil spirit, after descending to earth in order to induce people to sin, will then ascend to heaven to accuse them . . . But let me tell you a story." Similarly, "Fire" begins with, "I want to tell you a story. It isn't from a book—it happened to me personally. I've kept it secret all these years, but I know now I'll never leave this poorhouse alive . . . Here is my story." The most renowned tale in the collection opens with, "I am Gimpel the Fool. I don't think myself a fool." This first-person narration offers profound insights into the characters, revealing much about them through both the storyline and their descriptions of themselves and others.

One significant topic of discussion regarding Singer's work is faith. Conversations should explore the characters' relationships with God and how these connections influence their lives. For example, one might examine the loss of faith in "The Gentleman from Cracow" and "Joy," as well as the steadfast faith of Rabbi Moshe Ber in "The Old Man." How does God reward or punish individuals based on their faith in Him? Does God allow people to atone for their loss of faith? Is Singer's depiction of God one of punishment or forgiveness?

How does Singer portray women in his stories? He illustrates some women as sinful, like Elka, Zirel, and Shifra Zirel, but also depicts others as virtuous, such as Roise in "The Unseen." Does Singer present women as weaker or more vulnerable than men?

1. In "Gimpel the Fool," Gimpel is described both as a gullible fool and as a wise, devout man. How do you characterize him and why?

2. In various short stories from this collection, devils deceive seemingly virtuous characters. This theme is evident in "The Gentleman from Cracow," "The Mirror," and "The Unseen." What leads these characters to sin? Are these innocent individuals misled by evil forces, or are they regular people whom devils target due to their susceptibility to sin? Essentially, do the devils cause people to sin or merely reveal the evil inherent in human nature?

3. In "The Unseen," do you believe Reb Nathan's remorse is genuine? Is he truly sorry for wronging his wife, or is he merely regretful that his plan to run away with Shifra Zirel didn't succeed?

4. What impact does the use of first-person narrative have on Singer's stories? How might the stories differ if Singer used a third-person omniscient narrator?

5. In "The Little Shoemakers," how does Singer depict the seven sons of Abba? How does he portray their decision to move from Frampol to New Jersey? Is their relocation a natural and inevitable part of the diaspora, or do they betray their ancestors who lived in Poland for generations? Although the story centers on Abba, the title refers to his sons. Why?

6. Scholars of Singer's work have occasionally linked his stories to the Holocaust, suggesting that the Holocaust plays a symbolic and often subtle role in these narratives. Discuss the role of the Holocaust in stories like "The Little Shoemakers" and "The Gentleman from Cracow."

7. In "The Gentleman from Cracow," the entire town, except for Rabbi Ozer, falls into sin. Why is the rabbi unaffected by the gentleman's influence? What does the seduction of everyone else reveal about Singer's perspective on human nature?

8. In "The Unseen," "The Mirror," "Gimpel the Fool," "Diary of One Not Born," and other stories within this collection, the marriages depicted are highly unhappy. The consequences are infidelity and sorrow. Is Singer challenging the significance of marriage or matchmaking? Or is he illustrating the vulnerability of relationships when the devil attempts to divide a couple?

A central social issue in Gimpel the Fool is the debate over free will and the related question of humanity's place in the universe. Numerous stories in this collection by Singer explore an individual's relationship with God, emphasizing the roles of faith and patience in their lives. Several characters, particularly those in tales involving devils, express dissatisfaction with their status in the world and harbor ambitious desires for socioeconomic advancement. Discontent with God's decisions regarding their financial status and marital partners, they foolishly attempt to exceed what has been divinely assigned to them. This inevitably results in sin, which eventually brings about significant misfortune.

In "The Gentleman from Cracow," the devout residents of the shtetl (a small Jewish town) are healthy and have traditionally given birth to wonderful children, yet they remain unhappy due to their poverty. Enticed by the mysterious gentleman's wealth and generosity, the townspeople forsake their spirituality in pursuit of money. As a consequence, they temporarily become wealthier but soon lose their riches and are horrified to find that the town's infants have died as punishment for their greed. Instead of having wonderful children, they end up with no children at all. This punishment arises because they exercised their free will and made the wrong choice.

Tradition holds significant importance in Singer's short stories. In the poignant tale "The Little Shoemakers," Abba Shuster is a devout Jew from a lineage of shoemakers. For many generations, dating back to the seventeenth-century Chmielnicki pogroms, the Shuster family has been shoemakers in Frampol, Poland, as their surname suggests. Abba, whose name means father in Hebrew, has seven sons who follow in his footsteps by becoming shoemakers themselves. However, they break with tradition by relocating from Frampol to New Jersey. After his wife's death, Abba finds himself unable to leave Frampol despite his sons' attempts to bring him to America. For him, Poland is the traditional homeland, and Yiddish is the traditional language, not English. His life revolves around making shoes, attending shul (synagogue), and speaking the language of his ancestors. However, the Nazi invasion during the Holocaust disrupts this traditional lifestyle. When Abba finally arrives in New Jersey, he becomes physically and emotionally ill because his new surroundings starkly contrast with his traditions. In an attempt to help him, Gimpel, his eldest son, takes him to a shul in New Jersey. However, the unfamiliar customs lead Abba to mistakenly believe he is in a church and that Gimpel is trying to convert him to Christianity: "the sexton was clean-shaven; the candelabra held electric lights; there was no courtyard, no faucet for washing one's hands, no stove to stand around. The cantor, instead of singing like a cantor should, babbled and croaked." The stark differences in the sexton, lighting, building structure, and cantor between Frampol and New Jersey dishearten and confuse Abba, making it difficult for him to accept the change. He seems to be fading away, but one day he finds his sack of shoemaking tools and starts making shoes again. This return to his traditional craft rejuvenates him and restores his will to live. His seven sons realize that all he needs is a small return to his old way of life.

The Holocaust is another critical theme in these short stories. In "The Little Shoemakers," Abba Shuster escapes the Nazis, forcing him to abandon his traditional lifestyle and move to New Jersey. In "Gimpel the Fool," the protagonist's naivety may symbolize the trusting nature of Jews during the Holocaust, who believed that such a genocide could never happen. They felt their lives would be spared because they had powerful Christian friends, thought the Nazis would not invade their country, or believed the Allies would rescue them. In "The Gentleman from Cracow," the gentleman may symbolize Adolf Hitler in his methodical destruction of the shtetl.

1953: American citizens Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, who were Jewish members of the Communist Party, are executed for espionage. Their execution as civilians ignites a significant controversy.

1990s: Aldrich Ames, a senior CIA officer, is found guilty of spying for the Soviets over a 31-year period. He is sentenced to life imprisonment, the maximum penalty. His wife is also convicted but receives a shorter prison term of several years.

1950s: Approximately 5 percent of children in the United States are born out of wedlock.

Today: In the United States, over 30 percent of children are born out of wedlock.

1956: Polish workers protest against the Communist government, resulting in the deaths of over 100 demonstrators.

1993: Following capitalist reforms, Poland experiences a rise in violent crime perpetrated by organized gangs.

One literary predecessor for "Gimpel the Fool" could be Geoffrey Chaucer's "Miller's Tale" from The Canterbury Tales (1387-1400). Similar to John the carpenter, Gimpel is naive and overly trusting, unable to fully accept that his wife is unfaithful. While Gimpel eventually discerns the deceit, John remains oblivious. Both men are humorously portrayed as dupes due to the blatant infidelity of their wives. However, they both maintain a sense of dignity by refraining from retaliating against their spouses, despite facing humiliation and ridicule from their communities.

The misfortunes of Reb Paltiel in "From the Diary of One Not Born" parallel the trials of Job in the Bible. Both characters are prosperous and devout, only to encounter severe hardships, betrayed by Satan as a test of their faith in God. Similarly, Rabbi Moshe Ber's sufferings in "The Old Man" echo those of Job. The rabbi's steadfast faith in God enables him to reach his destination in Jozefow. His becoming a father at the age of one hundred and naming the child Isaac suggests that Singer drew inspiration from the Bible. The reunion of parent and child in a foreign land in "The Little Shoemakers" is reminiscent of the story of Joseph in the Bible. When the sons reunite with their father in America, the narrator notes, "Suddenly he [Abba] thought of Jacob arriving in Egypt, where he was met by Pharaoh's chariots. He felt, he had lived through the same experience in a previous incarnation."

The concept in "The Gentleman from Cracow" of a man who tests and corrupts the morals of an entire town is similar to Mark Twain's short story "The Man who Corrupted Hadleyburg." In both tales, townspeople, typically virtuous under normal circumstances, become dishonest when tempted by a figure who exposes their ambitions and baser instincts.

The four stories involving the devil are reminiscent of the plays of Christopher Marlowe, particularly Doctor Faustus (1592). In these short stories, the characters, like the protagonists in Marlowe's dramas, become overreachers—ambitious individuals dissatisfied with their current status and willing to sin and risk their eternal souls in their quest for success. They aspire to attain more than what God intends for them, ultimately paying a significant price for their desires.

Singer's emphasis on religious scholarship and Talmudic study, as depicted in stories like "Joy" and "The Old Man," also appears in other works by the same author that are not included in this collection. These works include The Slave and "Yentl the Yeshiva Boy." Singer highlights the significance of Talmudic study in the lives of devout Jews, portraying it as a fundamental part of their very existence.

In these short stories, characters yearn for sexual experiences that are forbidden to them. For instance, Nathan in "The Unseen" desires his maid, Shifra Zirel, despite being married. Similarly, Zirel in "The Mirror" longs for a man other than her dull husband. Gimpel's wife desires any man but her husband. In each scenario, the lovers defy taboos and pursue their fantasies, only to face repercussions in the end. The theme of forbidden love (or lust) also appears in other works by Singer. Jacob in The Slave yearns for Wanda, despite her being a gentile and him a Jew. Ben Dosa in King of the Fields (1988) secretly desires Kosoka, although he will only marry a Jew. Moreover, Yentl desires Avigdor but cannot reveal her true gender to him.

"Gimpel the Fool" was staged by the Yale Repertory Theater in New Haven, Connecticut, during the 1970-1971 season. The theater also adapted Singer's story "The Mirror" in January 1973. In "Gimpel the Fool," Henry Winkler, who later became famous as Fonzie in "Happy Days," portrayed the rabbi. Interestingly, the impotent husband in "The Mirror" also took on the role of Asmodeus, King of the Underworld, whom Zirel, the protagonist and wife, encounters in Sodom.

"Gimpel the Fool" was adapted for the stage by David Schechter and produced by the Bakery Theater Cooperative in New York in 1982.

"Gimpel the Fool" was read aloud by writer Eli Wallach on the national public radio station KCRW. Transcripts can be obtained through the National Yiddish Book Society.

A documentary titled Isaac Bashevis Singer: Champion of Yiddish Literature was created in 1991 by Ergo and is distributed by Ergo Media Inc. In this film, Singer shares his thoughts on topics such as writing, religion, and Yiddish.

An Academy Award-nominated documentary, Isaac Bashevis Singer: Isaac in America, was released in 1994. This film explores the author's life and features readings from Singer's works by actor Judd Hirsch. It is available through Monterey Home Video.

Sources

Alexander, Edward. Isaac Bashevis Singer: A Study of the Short Fiction, Twayne's Studies in Short Fiction, No. 18, Twayne, 1990.

Drucker, Sally Ann. "I B. Singer's Two Holy Fools," Yiddish, Vol. 8, no. 2, 1992, pp. 35-39.

Hadda, Janet. "Gimpel the Fool," Prooftexts, Vol. 10, 1990, pp. 283-295.

Hennings, Thomas. "Singer's 'Gimpel the Fool' and The Book of Hosea," The Journal of Narrative Technique, Vol. 13, no. 1, Winter 1983, pp. 11-19.

Pinsker, Sanford. "The Schlemiel as Metaphor," Studies in Yiddish and American Jewish Fiction, Southern Illinois University Press, 1971.

Further Reading

Short Story Criticism, Vol. 3, Gale, 1989.
Includes previously published critiques on Singer's short stories.

Siegel, Ben. "Sacred and Profane: Isaac Bashevis Singer's Embattled Spirits," Critique, Vol. VI, No. 1 (Spring 1963): 24-47.
Analyzes Singer's integration of Yiddish and Western literary traditions in Gimpel the Fool and The Spinoza of Market Street.

Singer, Isaac Bashevis, and Burgin, Richard. Conversations with Isaac Bashevis Singer. New York: Farrar, Straus, 1986, 190 p.
A collection of interviews with Singer.