Biography
George Berkeley, a pivotal figure in the realm of philosophy, introduced a groundbreaking theory of perception that challenged the existence of material objects. Positioned between John Locke's common-sense approach to materialism and David Hume's skeptical philosophy, Berkeley's ideas were instrumental in transitioning from traditional views to the onset of modern scientific thought. His philosophical contributions continue to resonate, offering insight into early empiricist thought.
Early Life
Born on March 12, 1685, in the vicinity of Kilkenny, Ireland, George Berkeley was the firstborn of William Berkeley. Although little is documented about his childhood, he showed early signs of intellectual promise. By 1696, he was attending Kilkenny School, and in 1700, he furthered his education at Trinity College, Dublin. There, he immersed himself in disciplines such as mathematics, logic, languages, and philosophy, graduating in 1704 with a Master of Arts degree by 1707. His philosophical outlook was significantly shaped during this time by the works of John Locke, Nicolas Malebranche, and Pierre Bayle. Berkeley's developing thoughts on the immateriality of objects, anchored in the subjectivity of sensory experiences, laid the groundwork for his future seminal works. Before turning thirty, he published three major philosophical texts between 1709 and 1713: An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, and Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous.
Life’s Work
In An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, Berkeley sought to unravel how human vision perceives concepts like distance and size, and whether perceptions from sight and touch align or differ. In A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, he aimed to show that unquestioned materialism ultimately results in skepticism and atheism. The dialogical style of Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous allowed Berkeley to delve deeper into these arguments, challenging the idea of a “material substratum” as a mere verbal construct.
Despite their eloquence and clarity, Berkeley's writings initially faced resistance, ridicule, or neglect. The prevailing common sense of the time upheld the reality of "matter," as epitomized by Dr. Samuel Johnson’s famous rebuttal, “I refute him thus,” by kicking a stone.
Berkeley was ordained a deacon in the Church of England in 1709 and became a priest the following year. His move to London in 1710 brought him into the company of literary figures like Joseph Addison, Sir Richard Steele, Alexander Pope, and Jonathan Swift. Berkeley attended the debut of Addison’s play Cato in 1713, writing a vivid account of the event, and contributed essays to Steele’s The Guardian, critiquing the ideas of freethinkers. His intellectual prowess was recognized by Pope, and Swift introduced him at court.
Berkeley's travels across Europe between 1713 and 1720, including a stint as tutor to George Ashe, son of the Bishop of Clogher, further enriched his philosophical perspectives. His publication De motu challenged Isaac Newton’s concepts of absolute space, time, and motion, aligning Berkeley with later scientific thinkers like Mach and Einstein. He remained a Fellow of Trinity College until 1724, when he was appointed Dean of Derry.
Philosophical and Religious Pursuits
Failing to engage the educated English audience with his philosophical ideas, Berkeley turned his focus to promoting Christianity and educating Native Americans, even devising a plan for a college in Bermuda. Although the scheme received initial support, including a parliamentary grant of twenty thousand pounds, it was ultimately shelved due to opposition.
In 1728, Berkeley married Anne Forster, a woman of intellect and education, and they relocated to Newport, Rhode Island. The union was fruitful, producing six children. Upon returning to Ireland in 1731, Berkeley became Bishop of Cloyne, where...
(This entire section contains 1270 words.)
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he served with distinction for eighteen years. During their time in America, Berkeley donated generously to Yale University, a gesture honored years later by naming the city of Berkeley, California, after him.
Back in Ireland, Berkeley continued writing on topics spanning religious apologetics, optics, and mathematics. He critiqued Deism, examined geometrical optics, and questioned the theory of physical fluxions, often opposing Newton's theories. His later works, including Alciphron, The Theory of Vision, The Analyst, and A Defense of Free-Thinking in Mathematics, consistently challenged materialism, freethinking, and atheism. While not singularly focused on these subjects, Berkeley's writings aimed to dismantle the prevailing 18th-century perspectives. He argued that religious mysteries are no more perplexing than scientific concepts like force and gravity.
Later Works and Legacy
The Querist offered economic insights into work, production, and wealth dynamics, while Siris, written later in life, touted tar water as a cure for ailments like famine and dysentery, blending mysticism with science. Siris, a comprehensive account of the philosophical underpinnings of science, achieved widespread success, quickly going through multiple editions.
Berkeley remained engaged in public discourse, commenting on political issues into his later years. In 1752, he and his family moved to Oxford, where Berkeley joined Christ Church College. He passed away unexpectedly on January 14, 1753, and was laid to rest in Christ Church Chapel.
Influence
Berkeley's impact on the empiricist tradition is profound, bridging Locke’s practical philosophy and Hume’s skepticism. A staunch empiricist, Berkeley believed that the senses were the primary channel for acquiring knowledge. While dismissing noetic intuition as a source of understanding like Hume did, Berkeley's views culminated in a vision of divine presence rather than doubt. He contended that confusion arises from the assumption of a mind-independent "matter." Instead, sensory experiences directly reveal the reality of mind or spirit, existing both as finite human and infinite divine.
His argument that empirical methods blur the lines between objective and subjective qualities challenged traditional views. Experience, he asserted, is a mental construct, captured in his famous phrase esse est percipi—to be is to be perceived. Berkeley aspired to resolve contemporary philosophical dilemmas but found recognition for his contributions elusive during his lifetime. It was David Hume who later highlighted Berkeley’s philosophical skepticism and immaterialism.
Berkeley's legacy extends to modern philosophy, influencing Anglo-American thinkers and reinforcing the distinction between subjective impressions and objective reality. His insistence that claims about the external world must be rooted in sensory experiences remains relevant, inspiring contemporary philosophical phenomenalism. His unyielding empiricism taught that sensory encounters underpin meaningful knowledge, a lesson that continues to inform epistemological theories today.
Further Reading
Berman, David. Berkeley. New York: Routledge, 1999. An accessible biographical overview of Berkeley's philosophy, suitable for those without prior knowledge. Includes a bibliography.
Berman, David. George Berkeley: Idealism and the Man. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. A detailed examination of Berkeley’s philosophical and religious positions, providing insight into his life and influence.
Bonk, Sigmund. “We See God”: George Berkeley’s Philosophical Theology. New York: Peter Lang, 1997. Focuses on Berkeley's theological philosophy.
Dancy, Jonathan. Berkeley: An Introduction. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1987. Offers a useful introduction for beginners studying Berkeley’s philosophy.
Foster, John, and Howard Robinson, eds. Essays on Berkeley: A Tercentennial Celebration. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. A collection of scholarly interpretations of Berkeley’s philosophy.
Jones, W. T. A History of Western Philosophy: Hobbes to Hume. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1969. Provides straightforward insights into Berkeley's philosophical theories.
Muehlman, R. G., ed. Berkeley’s Metaphysics: Structural, Interpretive, and Critical Essays. University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1995. A compilation of essays critically examining Berkeley’s metaphysical ideas.
Richie, A. D. George Berkeley: A Reappraisal. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 1967. Argues that Berkeley's theory of vision is key to understanding his philosophy.
Turbayne, Colin M. Critical and Interpretive Essays. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982. Explores critical aspects of Berkeley's epistemology and metaphysics.
Urmson, J. O. Berkeley. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. Provides a comprehensive analysis of Berkeley’s thought from a renowned 20th-century philosopher.
Warnock, G. J. Berkeley. London: Penguin Books, 1953. Offers insights into Berkeley’s perspectives on science, mathematics, and linguistics.
Bibliography by John K. Roth
