The revival of scholarly interest in Frankenstein has directly paralleled the emergence and development of feminist literary scholarship. On the one hand, Shelley’s novel has perhaps been an obvious subject of study for those who investigate the separate tradition of literature by women. On the other hand, Frankenstein anticipated and provided many of the concerns that feminist scholars would have. It expresses the rage and pain felt by those who are left out, who are not allowed a full place in their own culture.

Mary Shelley tells the reader that she felt some pressure to be a writer: Both her parents, Mary Wollstonecraft and William Godwin, were celebrated writers, and it was expected that she would continue the tradition. Yet her introduction is full of apologies for her work, and one sees everywhere the marks of difficulties she had being taken seriously. Not the least of these is the preface that was written by Percy Shelley in her voice, in which he acknowledges that the “humble novelist” needs to explain why she might aspire to the heights of great poetry. Frankenstein represents, symbolically, both some of the pressures on a woman writer and her critique of the culture that has created her but sees her as its “monster.”

The female characters in Shelley’s novel do not offer any kind of model response to the failures enacted by the males. Only in the novel’s symbolic vocabulary, in its acts of violence and its sympathies for the most hideous of creatures, do readers find a program for change. This work by a woman in a “feminine” genre—the gothic novel—is complex enough to provide generations of readers and scholars with puzzles to unravel. On the whole, it is not Mary Shelley’s prose that readers have admired; in any case, scholars are not sure how much of it is hers and how much Percy Shelley’s, since he went over it and rewrote many of its sentences. The power of this novel lies in its plot and in its central characters, the monster and his creator. Here is Pygmalion with a vengeance—and written by a woman.

The French Revolution and the Rise of Industrialism

Many early Romantic writers were fervent supporters of the French Revolution, which commenced in 1789 with the storming of the Bastille, a prison where the French monarchy detained political prisoners. The revolution marked a rejection of the old traditions and customs of the affluent classes, as economic power began to shift toward the middle class with the advent of industrialism. As textile factories and iron mills ramped up production using advanced machinery and technology, the working classes grew uneasy and increasingly concerned about job security, fearing that machines could replace them. Most of England's literary minds embraced the revolution, seeing it as a chance to create a more harmonious social structure.

William Godwin, Shelley's father, significantly influenced Romantic writers with his work, Inquiry Concerning Political Justice, in which he envisioned a society where property was equally distributed. Shelley's mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, was also a passionate advocate for the revolution. She wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Men as a counter to Edmund Burke's criticism of the revolution and followed it up two years later with A Vindication of the Rights of Women, promoting gender equality.

In 1792, the brutal "September Massacres" occurred, where French revolutionaries executed nearly 1,200 priests, royalists, aristocrats, and common criminals. This event, along with the "Reign of Terror" during which the revolutionary government imprisoned over 300,000 "suspects," dampened the enthusiasm of English sympathizers. With the rise of Napoleon, who was crowned emperor in 1804, England found itself at war with France during this period. After the war concluded in 1815, the English shifted their focus to the economic and social issues within their own nation.

England's failure to regulate the transition from an agrarian society to an industrialized one was largely due to a laissez-faire philosophy that rejected governmental interference in private businesses. This hands-off approach had significant repercussions, resulting in extremely low wages and dire working conditions for laborers, who were legally prohibited from forming unions.

Science and Technology

Ultimately, the working class resorted to violent protests to express their dissatisfaction with their conditions. Around 1811, a period characterized by unemployment, low wages, and high prices gave rise to the Luddite Movement. This movement encouraged individuals to destroy the technology and machinery that were displacing workers. The new machines enabled unprecedented production rates, intensifying job competition, and employers exploited the low employment rate to deny workers fair wages and decent working conditions.

Technological advances, including innovations like the steam engine, and scientific progress significantly influenced the Romantic period. One of the most notable scientists of this era was Erasmus Darwin, a distinguished physician, poet, and scholar. His ideas on biological evolution anticipated those of his more renowned grandson, Charles Darwin. Both Mary and Percy Shelley were well-acquainted with Erasmus Darwin's theories on evolution, which became a central topic of discussion at the poet Lord Byron's home, where Mary Shelley conceived the idea for Frankenstein.

Percy and Mary Shelley also attended a lecture by Andrew Crosse, a British scientist whose experiments with electricity bore similarities to the fascinations of Frankenstein. Crosse's discussion on galvanism, the study of electricity and its applications, undoubtedly sparked Mary Shelley's imagination, inspiring her depiction of Victor Frankenstein's methodical creation of the creature in her novel.

Arctic Exploration

The late 1700s heralded a new era of ocean exploration. England's Royal Academy, which sponsored the first voyage to the South Seas, attracted scientists and adventurers alike. Explorers eventually aimed to discover a trade route through the Arctic to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In 1818, the same year Mary Shelley published Frankenstein, a Scottish explorer named John Ross embarked on a quest for the Northwest Passage. During his journey, he discovered an eight-mile stretch of red-colored snow cliffs overlooking Baffin Bay, situated between Greenland and Canada. His expedition mirrored Walton's pursuit of the North Pole and epitomized the age of exploration in which Shelley lived.

Frankenstein is a reflection of its era—the early nineteenth century—a period marked by social, political, scientific, and economic turmoil. The novel highlights the significance of intellectual pursuits in uncovering the universe's mysteries (rationalism) while also affirming the value of emotions and individual needs (romanticism).

Beyond its historical context, why does Frankenstein remain so popular, and what relevance does it hold for us today? Central to the novel is the exploration of science and its relationship with humanity. Is science inherently beneficial to mankind, or does it possess a darker aspect? Do humans have the right, or the capability, to assume the role of creator or God? Mary Shelley's response appears to be that science and progress are ethically neutral, with the potential to serve both good and evil purposes. Therefore, science presents humanity with the significant challenge of wielding its power responsibly and compassionately.

In a story featuring a vengeful and murderous monster, scenes of violence and terror are inevitable. The narrative includes three murders, an execution, and a cottage set ablaze by arson, along with three additional deaths. Similar to classical Greek dramatists, Shelley somewhat alleviates the horror of these scenes by having the violence occur "offstage." This means she never directly depicts the monster strangling his victims. Instead, she describes how the bodies are discovered and focuses on the sorrow experienced by family members, friends, and the community. Shelley's emphasis is on the grief rather than the gruesome details of the murders or the horrific state of the bodies. She does not dwell on graphic details. All of the monster's victims are innocent. If the monster had only killed his creator for abandoning him, readers might judge the monster less severely. The impact of the violence is further lessened because Frankenstein recounts each murder to Walton long after they have occurred.

• Early 1800s: Following the conclusion of the French Revolution, England focused on domestic and economic issues, particularly those arising from its rapidly expanding industrial landscape.

  Today: Employment and education concerns are similarly driven by swift changes, as the business world transitions from industrial production to a service and information-based economy.

• Early 1800s: Scientific breakthroughs, notably Erasmus Darwin's research on biological evolution, led people to question divine authority and explore the origins of human life.

  Today: Scientists in Scotland successfully modify DNA from an adult sheep to clone another sheep. Meanwhile, the U.S. government prohibits federal funding for human DNA cloning experiments.

• Early 1800s: Romantic writers enjoyed a literary Renaissance, with critical theory celebrating the era's great poets. Authors embraced literary freedom, experimenting with innovative language and new genres like Gothicism.

  Today: Interest in the arts appears to be waning, as most people prefer watching television over engaging with various art forms. Funding for the National Endowment for the Arts has been significantly reduced, and many public schools have had to eliminate music and art classes.

• Early 1800s: Nautical explorations established trade routes and facilitated cultural exchanges. Robert Walton's expedition to the North Pole reflected the adventures of nineteenth-century scientists and explorers.

  Today: The pace of space exploration has slowed since the 1969 lunar landing, as governments struggle to fund large-scale space programs. Initiatives like a space station around Earth and a manned mission to Mars are more likely to result from international cooperation.