leaders like Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr., offered differing visions of racial justice, women also pushed against the constraints of traditional gender roles. The feminist movement confronted stereotypes, challenging the restrictive ideals of femininity embodied by icons like Twiggy and the Barbie doll. Fashion became a battleground for expression, with fluctuating hemlines symbolizing the larger struggle for gender equality.

Yet, amidst these movements, the unique voices of black women were often sidelined. African American women faced a dual marginalization, straddling racial and gender identities. Ntozake Shange's work was instrumental in bringing these overlooked narratives to the forefront. Her assertion that black women were at a societal disadvantage resonated powerfully, sparking a crucial dialogue about black sexism and inspiring introspection within African American communities.

Theater as a Catalyst for Change

The experimental theater of the 1960s and 1970s broke new ground, challenging societal taboos with productions like "Hair" and "Oh, Calcutta". This era laid the foundation for works such as Shange's for colored girls..., which blended innovative staging with narrative depth to engage its audience profoundly. Black theater, led by figures like Imamu Amiri Baraka, became a pivotal arena for exploring racial identity and social change. Shange, drawing on Baraka's influence, employed radical stylistic choices—using slashes, lowercase letters, and phonetic spelling—to craft a narrative that transcended racial barriers and spoke directly to both black and white audiences. Her work underscored the power of theater as a platform for social awareness and community building.

The Impact and Legacy of "for colored girls..."

Shange's for colored girls who have considered suicide / when the rainbow is enuf remains a cornerstone of African American literature and drama. It not only illuminated the struggles of black women but also initiated a broader discourse on intersectionality, even before the term became widespread. The play's candid depiction of black women's anger, often directed at black men, ignited fierce debates on gender relations within the African American community. Although some of these discussions have waned over time, the foundational work in identity politics and community empowerment persists.

By the 1990s, societal perceptions had shifted, with black men often perceived as the most marginalized—an inversion encapsulated by the Million Man March's emphasis on black male unity in 1995. However, Shange's impact on cultural discourse had already established her as a transformative force. Her play, a testament to the resilience of black women, continues to challenge and inspire, affirming art's enduring ability to reshape societal narratives.

Ntozake Shange and the Poetics of Form

Ntosake Shange stands among America’s most influential dramatists, with for colored girls who have considered suicide being a seminal work that reshaped the landscape of theatrical expression. Through her innovative use of form—melding dance, music, and poetic dialogue—Shange created a structure that not only expressed the thematic intent of the piece but also demanded that audiences confront difficult truths about race, gender, and identity. Her work speaks to the universal suffering of women, transcending racial lines and asserting the critical importance of giving voice to black women within the broader feminist movement.

Shange's play challenges both the assumptions of a racist society, including those of white feminists, and the patriarchal norms perpetuated even within the African American community. By shining a light on the complexities of black feminism, she broadened the feminist discourse, ensuring that the voices of black women were not only heard but also respected and valued. Her legacy continues to influence and inspire, demonstrating the powerful role of art in advocating for social change and justice.

In the realm of theatrical expression, "for colored girls who have considered suicide / when the rainbow is enuf" stands as a groundbreaking work. Its unique format blends poetry, dance, and music in a choreopoem—an innovative medium created by Ntozake Shange to break free from the constraints of traditional theater. The work celebrates black female identity through vivid symbolism, evocative monologues, and powerful musical motifs.

Choreopoem: A New Medium

The concept of the choreopoem, as introduced by Shange, is a synthesis of movement, gesture, and music that defies the typical categorization of theatrical works. Unlike a traditional performance where choreography might simply accompany music, this medium integrates all elements into a cohesive experience. Performers not only recite and narrate the verses but also embody them through dance, creating a dynamic interaction between performer, text, and audience. The improvisational nature of the choreopoem allows performers to adapt their expressions according to their own emotions and the audience's response, ensuring each performance is a unique reflection of the present moment. By inventing the choreopoem, Shange carved out a space for black culture that resists the restrictive norms of European and American theater.

Symbolism and Identity

Symbolism plays a crucial role in "for colored girls...", with the rainbow being a central motif. This symbol manifests in the costumes of the performers, which reflect the colors of the rainbow, augmented by brown to signify black identity. In Shange's vision, the rainbow encapsulates the diversity and complexity of human experience. "If you see only one color, it's not beautiful. If you see them all, it is," Shange remarked, highlighting the beauty found in diversity and self-acceptance. Through the rainbow, Shange invites black women to discover their multifaceted identities and embrace all aspects of themselves to find inner beauty and love.

Monologues: Voices of Black Women

The choreopoem's structure is built around a series of twenty distinct poems, each initially conceived and performed as standalone pieces in women's bars in San Francisco before being woven into a cohesive production. These monologues permit individual performers to voice narratives of black womanhood, each offering a unique perspective yet contributing to a unified theme. As each woman shares her story, the ensemble supports her, either by participating in the storytelling or by providing an empathetic presence. This fragmented yet interconnected approach underscores the collective experience of black women, each voice contributing to a larger narrative of identity and resilience.

Musical Leitmotifs

Music is woven into the fabric of the choreopoem not only as an auditory experience but as a metaphorical device that mirrors the journey of "colored girls." Throughout the work, musical terms like "half-notes" and "without rhythm" symbolize the early discord and fragmentation in the lives of young black women. These musical images represent the struggle for identity and harmony within a world that denies them their rightful place. As the performance progresses, the discord resolves into a harmonious conclusion, with all the women dancing and chanting together in a symbol of discovered unity and identity. Music also serves as a double-edged sword: it can lure women into risky situations, as in the tale of a virgin seduced by dance, and act as a sanctuary from life's challenges, as reflected in the lady in purple's solace in music. Ultimately, music becomes a conduit for transcendence, empowerment, and the realization of a harmonious black female identity.

1970s: Throughout the Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, African Americans fought for equal rights to vote, work, and receive an education comparable to that of white Americans. During the 1960s, predominantly white women initiated the women's liberation movement. However, both movements largely excluded black women, who faced even greater challenges than black men in achieving equality in society.

Today: Louis Farrakhan's 1995 Million Man March in Washington, D.C. emphasized the need for black men to take on more responsibility within the black American family and to show the respect that black women, as depicted in Shange's play, have long sought.

1970s: Societal constraints and a slow-to-change culture severely limited opportunities for black women in fields like business, politics, and the arts. After Lorraine Hansberry's groundbreaking presence on Broadway, it took nearly two decades for Shange to become the second black woman playwright to debut on Broadway.

Today: Although black Americans, and black women in particular, still face significant challenges in achieving full equality in American society, many have made substantial progress. This progress is largely due to the trailblazing efforts of women like Shange, poet Maya Angelou, and politicians such as Barbara Jordan. Playwrights such as Anna Deveare Smith have greatly benefited from Shange's social and dramatic innovations.

for colored girls who have considered suicide/ when the rainbow is enuf was broadcast on June 14, 1983, by the Public Broadcasting Service's American Playhouse. The production featured Patti LaBelle as the lady in brown, with music arranged by Baikida Carroll. LaBelle delivers a distinctly gospel interpretation of the play's music. Shange discusses the adaptation process in the February 20, 1982, issue of TV Guide, on pages 14-15.

The original Broadway cast recording of for colored girls who have considered suicide/when the rainbow is enuf was released by Buddah Records in 1976, under the catalog number BDS 95007-OC.

In response to the negative portrayal of black men in Shange's work, a group of inmates created a parody titled For Colored Guys Who Have Gone Beyond Suicide and Found No Rainbow: A Choreopoem/Drama. The authors—James Able, Harrison Bennet, Harry McClelland, John Mingo, Roland Robertson, and Baari Shabazz—were all members of the Writers Club at the Maryland House of Correction for Men in Jessup, Maryland, in 1986. Their play, which borders on misogyny, suggests that the challenges faced by black men stem from black women's lack of empathy for their struggle to survive within a racist sociopolitical system.

Further Reading

Baraka, Imamu Amin. "Black 'Revolutionary' Poets Should Also Be Playwrights," Black World, April 1972, pp. 4-7.
A call to action for black playwrights to utilize theater as a medium for advocating social transformation.

Brown-Guillory, Elizabeth. Their Place on the Stage: Black Women Playwrights in America, Greenwood Press, 1988.
An analysis of the impact of black female playwrights, with a section dedicated to Shange.

Sources

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Cronacher, Karen. "for colored girls who have considered suicide/when the rainbow is enuf by Ntozake Shange" in International Dictionary of Theatre Plays, pp. 258-60, St. James, 1992.

Davis, Angela. "Ntozake Shange Interview with Angela Davis," Videotape, American Poetry Archives, The Poetry Center, San Francisco State University, May 5, 1989.

Flower, Sandra Holhn. "Colored Girls—Textbook for the Eighties" in Black American Literature Forum, Vol. 15 (1981), p. 52.

Harris, Jessica. "for colored girls... from Ntozake to Broadway" in New York Amsterdam News/Arts and Entertainment, October 9, 1976, p. D1.

Hooks, Bell. Talking Back: Thinking Feminist, Thinking Black, South End (Boston), 1989.

Lester, Neal A. "Shange's Men for colored girls... Revisited, and Movement Beyond" in African American Review, Vol. 26, no. 2, 1992.

Lester, Neal. A Ntozake Shange—A Critical Study of the Plays, Garland Publishing, 1995.

New York Times, June 16, 1976.

Olaniyan, Tejumola. "Ntozake Shange: The Vengeance of Difference, or The Gender of Black Cultural Identity" in Scars of Conquest, Masks of Resistance: The Invention of Cultural Identities in African, African-American, and Caribbean Drama, Oxford University Press, 1995.

Ribowsky, Mark. "A Poetess Scores a Hit with Play on What's Wrong with Black Men" in Sepia, December 25, 1976, p. 46.

Rich, Alan. "Theater: For Audiences of Any Color When 'Rex' is Not Enuf" in New York, June 14, 1976, p. 62.

Richards, Sandra L. "Conflicting Impulses in the Plays of Ntozake Shange" in Black American Literature Forum, Vol. 17, no. 2, Summer 1983, pp. 73-78.

Simon, John. "Stage 'Enuf is Not Enough" in New Leader, Vol. 59, July 5, 1976.

Smith, Yvonne. "Ntozake Shange: A 'Colored Girl' Considers Success" in Essence, February 1982, p. 12.

Tate, Claudia P. "Ntozake Shange" in Black Women Writers at Work, Continuum, 1983, pp. 149-174.

Timpane, John. "'The Poetry of a Moment'- Politics and the Open Forum in the Drama of Ntozake Shange" in Studies in American Drama, 1945-Present, Vol. 4, 1989, pp. 91-101.

Trescott, Jaquelme. "Ntozake Shange: Searching for Respect and Identity" in Washington Post, June 29, 1976, p. B5.