Historical Context
The Homestead Act of 1862
The concept of granting free land in the United States had been present since the country's early years, but it wasn't until the Civil War that it became a reality. In the mid-1840s, the entire nation experienced considerable growth, but the expansion in the West surpassed that of other areas. Despite this growth, the West was made up of territories that hadn't yet achieved statehood. Consequently, these territories lacked representation in Congress and missed out on government programs available to the more established regions in the North and South. Westerners supported the idea of free land, believing it would attract more settlers, while Northerners saw it as a way to create a new market for manufactured goods. In contrast, the South opposed the idea, fearing it would increase agricultural competition and encourage many Southerners, especially slaves and laborers, to leave the region.
However, in 1860, the secession of Southern states made it easier for the remaining states to pass laws supporting free land. Congress enacted the Homestead Act, which President Abraham Lincoln signed in 1862. This legislation allowed any citizen who was the head of a household, at least twenty-one years old, or a veteran with a minimum of fourteen days of active service, to claim a parcel of public land measuring 160 acres. The land was available everywhere except in the original thirteen states, as well as Maine, Vermont, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Texas. After living on and cultivating the land for five years, a homesteader would receive the title to the property. The Homestead Act offered a significant incentive to settle the West, leading to a more rapid development of the region than would have occurred otherwise.
Nicodemus, Kansas
In the 1870s, W. R. Hill, a white man, alongside W. H. Smith, a black homesteader, and five black ministers, established the Nicodemus Town Company to attract settlers for an all-black community. The town's name holds historical significance, though accounts vary. Some sources claim Nicodemus was a slave who predicted the Civil War, while others suggest he was the first slave in America to purchase his freedom.
In September 1877, a group of 350 settlers arrived from Kentucky. Their initial optimism soon faced the challenges of the flat landscape, farming difficulties, and dwindling supplies. While about sixty families returned to Kentucky, the remaining settlers received aid during the winter from a group of Osage Indians, who provided them with food.
After enduring the challenges of their initial year, more settlers joined the homesteaders, and by 1885, Nicodemus had grown to nearly 700 residents. It had transformed into a fully-fledged town with two newspapers, livery stables, a post office, a store, a doctor, hotels, restaurants, schools, and churches. Although the town lost some momentum when the railroads that spurred Western expansion bypassed it, Nicodemus remained vibrant until the Great Depression of the 1930s. During that period, many inhabitants left in search of better opportunities elsewhere. Despite the decline in population, Nicodemus continued to be a hub for African-American culture and accomplishments.
Today, Nicodemus celebrates an annual Emancipation Celebration on the last weekend of July. Descendants of the original settlers come from across the nation to honor the bravery and determination of their forebears.
Jim Crow Laws
Jim Crow laws laid the legal groundwork for racial segregation in the Southern United States. It was this institutionalized racism that many African Americans sought to escape by moving West. The term "Jim Crow" originated from a black minstrel character in stage performances of the era, who was depicted as blissfully ignorant despite being subjected to harsh treatment...
(This entire section contains 643 words.)
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by whites. The laws were first enacted in 1865, initially targeting racial separation in public transportation, but the underlying prejudices soon extended to segregation in nearly every facet of Southern life. While the laws initially focused on railroads, they quickly expanded to include schools, hospitals, theaters, hotels, streetcars, residences, and cemeteries.
Literary Style
Symbolism
Cleage effectively uses symbolism by selecting specific objects to convey deeper meanings. She begins with the symbolism of flowers. As beautiful creations of nature, flowers symbolize new life and resilience. They also represent a lifestyle that transcends mere survival; having fresh flowers in a home is a joyful luxury. Fannie gathers flowers from outside and places them in water around the house, showcasing her innate desire to bring the vitality of the natural world indoors. Different flowers convey different messages. For instance, Sophie finds sunflowers too large for indoor display, suggesting that not everything from the outside world is suitable or comfortable within the women's domestic sphere. Roses, on the other hand, represent independence. Fannie recounts her father telling her mother that “colored women ain’t got no time to be foolin’ with roses,” to which her mother replied that if he had time to concern himself with her activities, she had the right to grow roses.
Fannie’s china serves as another example of symbolism, representing a life superior to the slavery endured by the other characters. The china also signifies the importance of Fannie’s heritage. Although Sophie wanted to leave it behind when they moved West, Fannie insisted on bringing it because it belonged to her mother. The china holds great significance for Fannie, much like Miss Leah’s stories do, and Fannie desires to preserve both as a way to maintain a connection to the past.
Irony
Irony involves a contrast between what seems to be true and what actually is true. It is a sophisticated literary device that relies on opposing perceptions and forces. Cleage's choice to use Frank, a mulatto, as a vehicle for irony is fitting. Although Frank appears calm, he grapples with inner turmoil regarding his mixed heritage. He clings to the idealistic belief that his white father and black mother were truly in love and that his father intended to marry her. However, the reality is that his father denied his mother her freedom. Frank needs to believe that he was born from a loving and honorable relationship, when in truth, he was the result of a power imbalance and likely violence. The irony deepens as he replicates a similar dynamic with his own wife, asserting control and subjecting her to physical and emotional abuse. Their marriage mirrors an imbalance of power, yet he fails to see that he is repeating the past's harsh realities. This parallel is made clear through Frank's light skin, resembling his father, and Minnie's dark complexion, like his mother. He even tells her that he let some white men think Minnie was his "black whore," not his wife. His inability to recognize his own hypocrisy is further highlighted by his desire to return to London, where he believes blacks are treated more favorably, all while remaining oblivious to his mistreatment of his own people both individually and collectively.
Frank's character is also ironic in his attempts to impress Minnie's family. He believes he can prove his superiority by showcasing how refined his lifestyle is compared to their simpler way of living. Convinced that European civilization is superior to that of the American West, he assumes everyone shares his view. This mindset prevents him from earning the respect of Fannie, Sophie, Miss Leah, or Wil, who see Frank's "finer things" as trivial and insignificant. They value hard work, integrity, and freedom. Consequently, the more Frank tries to earn their respect on his terms, the less he succeeds.
Compare and Contrast
1898: The residents of Nicodemus are committed to building a robust community, even though their request for the new railroad to pass through their town was turned down. Railroads bring development and opportunities, so the people of Nicodemus are disheartened that the railroad will not include their town in its route.
Today: Nicodemus stands as an important historical landmark but is no longer a bustling town, partly because the railroad chose to bypass it.
1898: Kansas homesteaders are granted 160 acres each to cultivate, even though the typical farmer can only manage 40 acres at a time.
Today: The average farm in Kansas spans over 500 acres. With advancements in equipment and technology, farmers can now manage hundreds of acres, though challenges like soil erosion and resource depletion complicate farming practices.
1898: Agriculture is primarily represented by family farms. These farms are operated by families who live on the land—often for several generations—and have a strong connection to it.
Today: Family farms are the fastest-shrinking type of business in America. Agriculture is now dominated by corporate farms managed by large agribusinesses, overseeing extensive plots of land with no connection beyond financial interests.
Bibliography and Further Reading
Sources
Bennett, Suzanne, and Jane T. Peterson, ‘‘Pearl Cleage,’’ in Women Playwrights of Diversity: A Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook, Greenwood Press, 1997, p. 91.
Giles, Freda Scott, ‘‘The Motion of Herstory: Three Plays by Pearl Cleage,’’ in African American Review, Vol. 31, No. 4, Winter 1997, pp. 709–12.
King, Robert L., ‘‘Flyin’ West,’’ in the North American Review, Vol. 279, No. 6, November–December 1994, pp. 51–52.
Madison, Cathy, ‘‘Home Sweet Homestead,’’ in American Theatre, Vol. 9, No. 8, December 1992, p. 11.
Monroe, Steve, ‘‘Black Women as Pioneers,’’ in American Visions, Vol. 9, No. 5, October–November 1994, p. 31.
Scanlon, Jennifer, ed., ‘‘Pearl Cleage,’’ in Significant Contemporary American Feminists: A Biographical Sourcebook, Greenwood Press, 1999, p. 71.
Further Reading
Braxton, Joanne M., ed., The Collected Poetry of Paul Laurence Dunbar, University Press of Virginia, 1993. Dunbar is recognized as a pivotal early African-American poet, and his work captures the emotional depth and distinct experiences of African Americans in the late 1800s. The characters Frank and Minnie mention his poetry in Flyin’ West.
Chafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstad, eds., Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell about Life in the Segregated South, New Press, 2001. This book presents personal accounts of African Americans during the era of Jim Crow segregation. The interviews feature people from a range of economic, social, and geographical backgrounds. An accompanying audio disc allows readers to listen to some of the stories narrated by the interviewees themselves.
Painter, Nell Irvin, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction, Random House, 1977. This work discusses the events that led to the migration of numerous African Americans following the Civil War. Painter also explores the experiences of black settlers in Kansas, examining the factors that influenced their successes and challenges.
Spelman College Museum of Fine Art, Bearing Witness: Contemporary Works by African American Women Artists, Vol. 1, Rizzoli International, 1996. This publication showcases the art featured in the exhibition of the same name. The exhibit included various forms of media, with contributions from twenty-five distinguished artists. The artwork is accompanied by insightful essays from prominent African-American women, including Cleage and Maya Angelou.