and In Dubious Battle, his evident sympathy for displaced farmers and striking workers led some critics to label him a communist. Steinbeck discussed the political and economic pressures of the 1930s by focusing on their impact on the poor, without adhering to a specific ideology.

"Flight" was written during the Great Depression, which began in 1929 and persisted throughout the 1930s. During this period, numerous individuals lost their jobs and homes, becoming itinerant and often relocating their families westward in search of work on farms that had not been affected by the Midwestern "dustbowl" region. The impoverished population emerged as a significant political force because they had very little to lose. In this environment, many labor unions were established and gained strength, both in the industrial North and the agricultural West. By leveraging their political influence and with the support of President Franklin Roosevelt's proactive relief policies, unions succeeded in pressuring Congress to pass laws that established a minimum wage, guaranteed workers the right to organize and engage in collective bargaining, and ensured safe practices in the workplace.

Narrator and Point of View
"Flight" is narrated from a third-person perspective. The narrator, who is not part of the story, describes events as an observer would. For most of the story, the narrator is not all-knowing, meaning the reader does not get direct insight into the characters' thoughts or feelings. Instead, readers must infer what the characters are thinking or feeling based on their actions and dialogue. One notable exception to this occurs near the beginning of the story when the narrator reveals, "Mama thought [Pepe] fine and brave, but she never told him so." Here, the narrator steps into Mrs. Torres' mind, sharing her thoughts with the readers. However, for the majority of the story, readers must rely on external clues provided by the narrator to understand the characters' emotions. For instance, when Pepe wears his father's hat and green silk handkerchief, readers can deduce his pride and happiness from the narrator's description: "Pepe grinned with pride and gladness" as he rode off to Monterey. Later, as Pepe struggles up the mountain, thirsty and without his hat or horse, the narrator does not explicitly state that Pepe is uneasy. Instead, the description "[h]is eyes were uneasy and suspicious" serves as a clue to his feelings.

This limited third-person point of view places the reader in the role of an observer, requiring them to infer Pepe's motives from his actions and words. If the narrator were omniscient, the reader would know why Pepe stands on the ridge at the end of the story. However, because the narrator does not have access to Pepe's thoughts, the reader remains uncertain about his reasons. This limited perspective adds to the story's ambiguity.

Setting
"Flight" is set in an unspecified time on the central California coast and further inland in the coastal mountains. The story could have occurred anytime between the late 1800s and the mid-1900s. The Torres farm is situated on cliffs overlooking the Pacific Ocean, at the continent's edge. The wilderness Pepe flees into to the east is initially a redwood forest, followed by dry, rocky hills and mountains. This setting is perfect for the theme of man versus nature.

Imagery
Animal imagery is a predominant theme in "Flight." Pepe's mother likens him to various animals, including a coyote, a foolish chicken, a descendant of "some lazy cow," and a large sheep. He is described as grinning "sheepishly." His wrist moves like a snake's head. After being unseated from his horse, Pepe crawls, worms his way, wriggles, darts, and flashes like an animal. When his hand is injured, he slides "into the brush on his stomach" and crawls near a rattlesnake, mirroring its movements. These images recall his father's death from a rattlesnake bite. On his final day, Pepe ascends the ridge "with the effort of a hurt beast." He attempts to speak but can only produce a "thick hissing noise." When he lances and drains his infected hand, he whines "like a dog" in pain. He tries to speak again, but manages only a "thick hiss." It is only at the very end that he stands upright, like a human.

Structure
"Flight" is a short story that can almost be read as a folktale. It is set in an unspecified time, reminiscent of "once upon a time." Pepe is the protagonist sent on a mission, similar to Jack in "Jack and the Beanstalk" who was sent to sell the cow. Pepe faces a challenge and must flee for his life. His mother acts as his helper, providing him with his father's coat and rifle for warmth and protection, along with survival advice. Like many folktale heroes, Pepe is a peasant. He ventures into the wilderness and is tested. However, he loses his horse and his father's rifle, along with his ability to speak, reducing him to an animalistic state. The "dark watchers" introduce a supernatural element; it remains unclear whether they are an imaginary power or merely the men chasing Pepe.

Naturalism
Although "Flight" resembles a folktale in tone and structure, it is written in a highly naturalistic style. Naturalism is a literary style influenced by Charles Darwin's mid-nineteenth-century theories of evolution and natural selection. As explained by M. H. Abrams in the Glossary of Literary Terms, naturalist writers "held that a human being belongs entirely in the order of nature and does not have a soul or any other mode of participation in a religious or spiritual world beyond nature; that such a being is therefore merely a higher-order animal whose character and fortunes are determined by two kinds of forces, heredity and environment."

Steinbeck drew inspiration from naturalist authors like Theodore Dreiser, alongside his biology studies at Stanford. "Flight" is regarded as a pinnacle of naturalist literature. This narrative blends the structure of a folktale with a scientific perspective on the human experience. The folktale and naturalistic short story are contrasting forms and styles, and this contrast highlights the story's ambiguous conclusion. Did Pepe merely perish, viewed as a failure and akin to an animal, or did he achieve his journey to manhood by facing his adversaries?

1930s: Many street gangs that emerged during the 1920s to exploit Prohibition shift to other illegal activities. The romanticized "Dead End Kids" (also known as the East Side Kids and the Bowery Boys) feature in several movies during this era.

1990s: Gang members range from young children to adults. Drug trafficking and related crimes become primary activities and sources of income for gangs. In Los Angeles alone, there are an estimated 70,000 gang members. In 1997, a new California program aims to reduce gang violence by prosecuting the parents of gang members. This program utilizes a 90-year-old law that mandates the reasonable care and supervision of children.

1930s: During the Great Depression, murder rates are considered high, peaking in 1933 at 9.7 murders per 100,000 people annually.

1990s: After soaring in the 1970s and 1980s, murder rates in urban areas begin to decline. In 1996, the murder rate is approximately 10 per 100,000 people.

1930s: During the Great Depression, many farmers lose their farms because they cannot pay their mortgages. A contributing factor is overproduction, as farmers produce more than people can buy. In 1933, President Roosevelt establishes the Agricultural Adjustment Agency to address this issue. Although the agency is declared unconstitutional in 1936, it is restructured and reinstated in 1939. Other government programs at the time aim to protect farmland from misuse and overuse, eventually becoming part of the Farm Security Administration.

1990s: Many farmers go bankrupt during the 1980s and 1990s. Musicians like John Mellencamp and Willie Nelson organize Farm Aid concerts to support families who have lost their farms. Other farmers face challenges to remain profitable and increasingly engage in environmental land issues, including preventing soil erosion, runoff, and contamination from insecticide and herbicide residues.

"Flight" was turned into a movie by Barnaby Conrad, featuring Efram Ramirez and Ester Cortez. Columbia Pictures produced the film in 1960.

Sources
Antico, John. "A Reading of Steinbeck's 'Flight'," in Modern Fiction Studies, Vol. 11, Spring 1965, pp. 45-53.

Gordon, Walter K. "Steinbeck's 'Flight': Journey to or from Maturity?," in Studies in Short Fiction, Vol. III, No. 4, Summer 1966, pp. 453-55.

Jones, William M. "Steinbeck's 'Flight'," in The Explicator, Vol. 18, November 1959, Item 11.

Further Reading
French, Warren. "Adventures in the Long Valley," in John Steinbeck, pp. 80-94. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1961. Discusses Steinbeck's short fiction, noting that "Flight" is similar to Theodore Dreiser's novel An American Tragedy, as both feature young, impulsive protagonists who are overwhelmed by social responsibilities they are unprepared to handle.

McCarthy, Paul. "The Steinbeck Territory," in John Steinbeck, pp. 23-45. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1980. Examines "Flight" as a story enriched by its integration of crucial elements. McCarthy highlights the effective use of symbolism, imagery, and setting, along with traditional themes such as the escape from society and the transition from innocence to experience, to create a story he finds more complex and rich compared to other Steinbeck tales like "The Chrysanthemums" and "The White Quail."

Young, Stanley. "The Short Stories of John Steinbeck," in The New York Times Book Review, September 25, 1938, p. 7. Reviews The Long Valley, describing "Flight" as a narrative focused on Pepe's battle with primal fear. Young likens the story's terror and vividness to the flight of Reynard the Fox as depicted by John Masefield.