Biography
Ferdinand de Saussure's theoretical contributions laid the groundwork for the structuralist movement and significantly influenced twentieth-century linguistics, anthropology, and literary criticism. His exploration of language as a structured system paved the way for modern semiology, the study of signs. His ideas continue to resonate, underlining the profound interconnectedness of language and meaning.
Formative Years
In 1875, young Ferdinand de Saussure began his academic journey at the University of Geneva, enrolling in chemistry and physics courses, following the scientific path blazed by his ancestors. His great-grandfather, Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, was a renowned scientist, while his grandfather and father held prestigious roles in geology. Despite this legacy, it was the realm of linguistics that ultimately captivated Ferdinand's interest.
Influential figures in his life, like family friend Adolf Pictet and his grandfather Count Alexandre-Joseph de Pourtalès, nurtured Ferdinand's linguistic curiosity. By twelve, he was already delving into Pictet’s discussions on linguistic paleontology and had mastered several languages, including French, German, English, and Latin, with Greek soon following. On the cusp of university life, he was advised by Pictet to study Sanskrit, using a book by German scholar Franz Bopp.
Ferdinand’s initial foray into chemistry and physics was brief, lasting just two semesters before he redirected his focus towards languages, joining the Linguistic Society of Paris. His academic path took him to the University of Leipzig in Germany in the autumn of 1876. There, he immersed himself in the study of comparative grammar and various ancient languages under the mentorship of leading scholars, including the Neogrammarians, known for their groundbreaking theories on sound change in languages.
In the intellectually vibrant environment of Leipzig, surrounded by scholars like August Leskien, Hermann Osthoff, and Karl Brugmann, Saussure flourished, contributing papers to the Linguistic Society of Paris. At just twenty-one, he published his seminal work, Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes, which became his most celebrated piece. While studying Sanskrit in Berlin, he received his doctorate from Leipzig in 1880 with distinction.
Academic Pursuits
Saussure's groundbreaking monograph posited a bold reimagining of proto-Indo-European vowel systems, challenging conventional thought in Germany while earning acclaim in France. Relocating to Paris in 1880, he engaged with leading linguistic minds, including Michel Bréal, and regularly attended sessions at the Linguistic Society of Paris. By October 1881, Bréal's influence secured Saussure a lecturing position in Gothic and Old High German at the École des Hautes Études, marking the commencement of his teaching career.
While his primary focus was on Germanic languages, Saussure critiqued earlier comparative linguistics methods, which he viewed as random and unscientific. His prior work had already introduced the notion of language as a coherent, interrelated system, leading him to theorize about linguistic forms lost to history. His insights would only be validated decades later with discoveries in Hittite linguistics.
Saussure's tenure at the École des Hautes Études was marked by enthusiastic student engagement, as he laid the groundwork for comparative grammar studies in France alongside Bréal. Among his protégés were future luminaries of French linguistics, like Antoine Meillet, who later recalled the intellectual vigor of Saussure's lectures. Despite a decline in published work, Saussure’s reputation flourished, and his departure to the University of Geneva in 1891 was marked by high regard from his French colleagues.
In Geneva, Saussure continued to inspire students and colleagues through his teachings. His personal life saw him marrying Marie Faesch, with whom he had two sons. However, his public engagements dwindled, and from 1891 to 1899, he focused on comparative grammar and Sanskrit, occasionally branching into other subjects, such as French verse and German folklore.
During the early...
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1900s, Saussure delved into a curious research project on what he believed were "hidden texts" within Latin poetry, seeking concealed names woven into the verse. Despite compiling extensive notes, he abandoned this work without publication, as his inquiries went unanswered.
Philosophical Exploration
This cryptic project served as a diversion from Saussure's primary intellectual endeavor: unraveling the foundational aspects of linguistics. Although he confided in a former student that his linguistic theories had not evolved significantly since the 1890s, he continued to grapple with these ideas. A change in his teaching duties in 1906 presented an opportunity to delve into general linguistics and Indo-European language history at the University of Geneva, albeit reluctantly.
Saussure taught the newly introduced course thrice, commencing in 1907 with a focus on historical linguistics, attended by a small group of students. By the 1910-1911 academic year, he spent more time on general linguistic theory, though student numbers remained modest. His health declined before he could teach the course again, and he passed away on February 22, 1913, at his wife's family’s country home near Geneva.
Following his death, two of Saussure's colleagues compiled his scattered lecture notes and student transcriptions to piece together his ideas into a comprehensive volume. Published in 1916, the Course in General Linguistics initially experienced mixed reviews and limited recognition.
Saussure’s linguistic theories, as articulated in the Course in General Linguistics, gradually gained traction within European intellectual circles, specifically the Copenhagen, Moscow, and Prague Linguistic Circles. It wasn't until the 1930s that his work began to impact French linguistics significantly, and in the United States, it was largely overlooked until Roman Jakobson’s arrival in 1941. Over time, Saussure’s contributions have been retrospectively acknowledged as pivotal to the evolution of linguistic science.
Legacy and Impact
In his seminal text, Saussure differentiated between synchronic and diachronic linguistics. While diachronic linguistics explores language evolution over time, synchronic linguistics examines language at a singular moment, a perspective that dominated twentieth-century linguistic studies, especially in the United States. Saussure emphasized focusing on the language system (langue) over individual speech acts (parole), and these terms remain integral to linguistic discourse globally.
Perhaps Saussure's most influential idea was his portrayal of language as a network of signs, each defined by its relationship to others within the system. This concept underpins the structuralist approach that has permeated diverse fields such as anthropology and literary critique. Saussure envisioned linguistics as part of a larger semiotic framework, a science of signs he called "semiology," which, while not widely adopted by linguists, has linked his name firmly with the field.
The Course in General Linguistics has inspired extensive scholarly analysis, with investigations into the provenance of Saussure's ideas and comparisons to the original notes. Some scholars have attributed parts of his theories to previous thinkers, sparking debates on the work's authenticity. Nonetheless, the acknowledgment by Leonard Bloomfield, a preeminent American linguist, remains valid: Saussure provided the foundational theory for the science of language.
Further Reading
Culler, Jonathan. Ferdinand de Saussure. Rev. ed. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986. This accessible exploration of Saussure’s theories and their lasting impact includes recommendations for further study.
Furton, Edward J. A Medieval Semiotic: Reference and Representation in John of St. Thomas’ Theory of Signs. New York: Peter Lang, 1995. An analysis of Saussure’s contributions to semiotic theory.
Gadet, Françoise. Saussure and Contemporary Culture. Translated by Gregory Elliott. London: Hutchinson Radius, 1989. Offers extended quotations and discussions of Saussure’s work, its editing process, and its cultural impact.
Harris, Roy. Language, Saussure, and Wittgenstein: How to Play Games with Words. New York: Routledge, 1988. Discusses linguistic parallels between Saussure and Wittgenstein, focusing on language as rule-governed.
Harris, Roy. Reading Saussure: A Critical Commentary on the “Cours de linguistique générale.” London: Gerald Duckworth, 1987. A detailed analysis of Saussure’s text with chapter commentaries by a translator known for his controversial views; assumes a foundational understanding of linguistics.
Harris, Roy, and Talbot J. Taylor. Landmarks in Linguistic Thought: The Western Tradition from Socrates to Saussure. New York: Routledge, 1989. Introduces Saussure’s major concepts to students new to his work.
Holdcroft, David. Saussure: Signs, System, and Arbitrariness. Cambridge, London: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Reorders Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics and elaborates its key arguments, summarizing each chapter.
Koerner, E. F. K. Ferdinand de Saussure, Origin and Development of His Linguistic Thought in Western Studies of Language: A Contribution to the History and Theory of Linguistics. Braunschweig, West Germany: Vieweg, 1973. An extensive biography with a thorough bibliography, addressing Saussure’s intellectual influences.
Sampson, Geoffrey. “Saussure: Language as Social Fact.” In Schools of Linguistics. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1980. Provides a clear discussion of Saussure’s influential ideas, including langue and parole, and their implications for later linguistic theories.
Thibault, Paul J. Re-reading Saussure: The Dynamics of Signs in Social Life. New York: Routledge, 1997. Examines Saussure’s influence on philosophical approaches to language.
Bibliography updated by William Nelles
