Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus has been called Renaissance England’s “last avowedly religious drama.” While that assertion might be contested, it is certainly true that the play supplies the clearest and most emphatic representation of the psychomachia—the struggle between God and the devil for the fate of an individual human soul—that was available to English playgoers since the equally straightforward morality plays of the Middle Ages (with which Doctor Faustus bears many similarities.)

It is not that Faustus is unaware of this war between good and evil, between flesh and spirit, that is going on all around and within him. “Oh, I’ll leap up to my God!—Who pulls me down?” Faustus cries out at play’s end. What pulls him down is his obdurate pride, the habitual pattern of sins from which he cannot or will not release himself, and his condition of despair. Essentially, Faustus is convinced (wrongly, according to orthodox Christian thought) that his sins are so manifold and serious that they are beyond even God’s redress and forgiveness; accordingly, he cannot truly repent. To many Renaissance minds, such conscious embracing of despair constitutes the “sin against the Holy Spirit,” warned of in Scripture that alone resides outside the circumference of God’s mercy.

Faustus finally understands that he has long suspected on some level—namely, that “for the vain pleasure of four and twenty years,” he has “lost eternal joy and felicity” in the presence of God’s glory. He had dreamed of world conquest but ends up as little more than a court clown, fetching grapes for a bored and dissipated duchess. He had thought to acquire all knowledge but is at last left praying for the sublime oblivion of the bestial and even mineral worlds. This alarming declension—this devolution—of a human soul receives a powerful dramatic treatment in Marlowe’s famous play.

In numerous ways, Marlowe's Doctor Faustus mirrors the significant intellectual, economic, and political transformations occurring in sixteenth-century England, driven by the Renaissance and the Reformation.

The Renaissance began in Italy during the 14th century and, over the next two hundred years, disseminated new ideas throughout Europe. This period of intellectual and artistic revival was largely due to the recovery and translation of many lost ancient Greek and Roman texts, as well as the new concepts people developed after studying the works of earlier scholars.

Politics and religion became deeply intertwined with national identity due to the connection between the Protestant Reformation and England's Renaissance culture. Spain's explorations of Asia, Africa, and the Americas led to shifts in Europe's political and social structures. The development of imperial economies that connected European nations with their colonies contributed to the rise of the modern nation-state by fostering a stronger sense of national identity.

During the reign of Henry VII, which began in 1485, the centralization of government and an efficient bureaucracy brought political stability to England. This environment allowed Renaissance ideas to thrive.

Henry VIII ascended to the throne in 1509. His failure to produce a male heir with his wife Catherine of Aragon led him to seek a divorce. When Pope Leo X denied his request, largely due to political pressure from Spain, Henry severed ties with the Roman Catholic Church. The Act of Supremacy in 1534 established the Church of England with the monarch as its head, ushering in a period of significant religious conflict in England, though it was less bloody than similar conflicts elsewhere. After Henry VIII's death, Edward VI, who continued England's Protestant path, ruled briefly. Upon Edward's death, Mary Tudor, a half-Spanish Catholic, became queen and attempted to restore Catholicism in England. Her persecution of Protestants earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary," and her marriage to her cousin Philip II of Spain raised fears about England falling under Spanish political and religious influence. Mary's death led to the ascension of Queen Elizabeth, who reversed England's Catholic drift but maintained a largely centrist stance on religion and politics. Spain's dominant global position, bolstered by wealth from its conquests in the Americas, kept England anxious about Spanish Catholicism's potential impact. This concern was alleviated by the significant defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Readers of Marlowe's plays should consider this historical context, as it sheds light on Faustus's mockery of the Pope and his ultimate damnation. At the play's start, Faustus contemplates pursuing the black arts. He rejects theology in favor of magic after reading Jerome's Bible, a heavily revised edition negatively associated with Catholicism by England's Protestant majority. This "wrong" version of the Bible plays a role in Faustus's fateful decision.

The Renaissance brought a renewed focus on Humanism. During the medieval period, religious attitudes largely emphasized the spiritual realm over the material one. Society valued collective norms more than individual achievements. However, the Renaissance shifted this perspective, affirming individual worth and highlighting the potential for happiness and success in the present world.

Several factors fueled the rise of Humanism. Firstly, Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation weakened the grip Roman Catholicism had on European religion during the Middle Ages. The translation of rediscovered classical texts and contemporary continental writings furthered the trend toward secularization. While books were once painstakingly hand-copied, Johann Gutenberg's invention of the printing press in 1445, and its introduction to England by William Caxton in 1476, made books more accessible. Education also evolved, with tutors and universities incorporating newly recovered classical texts into their curricula. Students read these texts not just to enhance language skills but to grasp their ethical, social, and political insights. Classical values began to influence English society, as did contemporary Italian works like Niccolo Machiavelli's 1513 The Prince and Baldassare Castiglione's 1528 The Book of the Courtier. Education was valued not only by the elite but also by professionals, artisans, and merchants, recognizing its personal and economic benefits. As a result, literacy rates increased.

By liberating intellectual exploration from theological constraints, a scientific revolution known as the "New Science" emerged. Following astronomical discoveries by Galileo and Copernicus, thinkers like Francis Bacon prioritized the observation of nature over traditional writings about it, developing what we now know as the scientific method. Marlowe's Doctor Faustus critiques both the New Science and Humanism, which drive Faustus's insatiable desire to understand the natural world. The play raises questions about the potential limits on human knowledge and scientific exploration.

Columbus's voyages to the Americas in the late 15th century initiated an era of maritime exploration for Spain, France, Portugal, and England. The need for funding to support these explorations and trade led to the beginnings of modern banking and commerce, particularly through crown-supported monopolies. Organizations like the Senegal Adventurers (1588) and the East India Company (1600) allowed entrepreneurs to sell stock to finance various ventures, especially trade with Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Political and economic transformations influenced not only the manner in which people lived but also their locations. The industrial and agricultural revolutions that culminated in the eighteenth century can trace their origins back to the Renaissance. During Queen Elizabeth's reign, the enclosure movement resulted in more efficient farming methods but also displaced rural workers, prompting them to migrate to the cities. England, which had primarily been a wool-exporting nation, began to manufacture and export cloth. This surge in trade attracted people to urban centers, where trade-related industries thrived. The nation's overall wealth increased, and city inhabitants who provided goods and services saw their prosperity grow. This prosperity accelerated the development of England's professional and artisan-based middle classes, a trend that started in the late Middle Ages and is depicted in Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Besides being a hub for politics and economics, London also became a cultural epicenter, nurturing the essential elements for great theatre like Marlowe's: patrons, artists, and audiences.

Students studying Marlowe should closely examine these evolving social structures, which enabled individuals without noble titles or inherited wealth to rise to prominence. Enhanced social mobility, along with a renewed focus on secular education, led to the emergence of the strong, ambitious personality type that characterizes Renaissance Individualism. Marlowe's protagonists embody this type, striving for greatness in military, political, or spiritual arenas. In Tamburlaine, for instance, a shepherd ascends to become a warrior-king. While not every shepherd became a king, expanding economic opportunities broadened many people's horizons. The overreaching ambition of Marlowe's characters, often combined with their ruthless pursuits, ultimately leads to their downfall. In this way, their personal ambitions mirror those of society at large and serve as a caution against sacrificing one's soul for material gain.

1590's: People were both anxious and fascinated by the "New Science" introduced by Galileo, Copernicus, and Bacon. They were also captivated by the exploration of the "New World" by Christopher Columbus and the discoveries of maritime adventurers like Sir Francis Drake.

Today: Advances in genetic engineering and cloning evoke both intrigue and fear, much like the discovery of potential life on other planets.

1590's: There was a pervasive fear of those who were different. Protestants feared Catholics, Catholics feared Protestants, and both groups harbored fears toward Jews and Muslims.

Today: Despite progress in education and literacy, people today still harbor anxieties towards those of different races, religions, and ethnic backgrounds.

1590's: Theatre audiences were enthralled by plays that transported them to magical realms or introduced them to extraordinary beings, such as the demons in Doctor Faustus.

Today: Modern audiences find simple narrative tales uninteresting; they now seek out spectacles filled with props and special effects, such as those in Phantom of the Opera. Special effects are crucial to the success of most Broadway shows and many films. The introduction of computer-generated imagery—which brought lifelike dinosaurs to the screen in Jurassic Park and The Lost World—has set new standards for entertainment.

1590's: Audiences enjoyed plays about heroic figures like kings and warriors, and appreciated works like Doctor Faustus that mocked academics.

Today: People continue to admire those who achieve great things, especially when overcoming adversity, as seen in the character of Forrest Gump. Films like Back to School and TV shows like 3rd Rock from the Sun poke fun at rigid and traditional educators and academics.

1590's: Monarchy was the prevailing form of government worldwide. While some monarchies had legislative branches for group decision-making, most power was concentrated in the executive branch.

Today: Absolute monarchies are rare, though several constitutional monarchies (like England) persist, where royal figures serve as symbols, and actual government power lies with a legislature and ministry.