where plots and personas often become symbols and allegories. Characters may be named simply "Father," as seen in Strindberg’sThe Father, or "Cashier," eschewing the specificity of names like Mrs. Jones typical to realistic plays. This approach highlights the universal threads of human experience over individual particularities. In the poetic arena, figures like Trakl navigate the psychological labyrinth of human existence through fragmented and symbolic imagery, bypassing straightforward narratives or consistent voices.

Monologue

Monologues, the solitary speeches of a lone voice, dominate expressionist theater. This prominence stems in part from the didactic nature of expressionist works, as well as the movement's celebration of the individual's unique perspective on the world. Characters frequently engage in introspective dialogues known as soliloquies, speaking to themselves in the echoing halls of their minds. Stalwarts like Strindberg, Kaiser, and Toller embrace monologues and soliloquies, weaving them extensively into their theatrical fabric.

Genre

Expressionists often dismissed the confines of distinct artistic categories, blurring the lines between plays, poetry, and fiction. They ventured into a world where plays were a fusion of dance, music, and art gallery-like sets, with characters intermittently breaking into verse. Visionaries such as Wassily Kandinsky, a renaissance artist in painting, poetry, and drama, mastered this "total art" approach. In his creation, The Yellow Sound, he orchestrates a symphony of color, music, and characters with evocative names like "Five Giants," "Indistinct Creatures," and "People in Tights" to portray the complexities of the human condition in an abstract form.

Abstract Expressionism

Emerging from the expressive depths of early 20th-century movements, abstract expressionism, often referred to as the "New York school," took root in the bustling heart of New York City and the serene landscapes of Eastern Long Island in the mid-1940s. Visionaries like Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Robert Motherwell, and Philip Guston dedicated themselves to the essence of painting itself. Their work manifested on colossal canvases, inviting chance occurrences during creation and boldly playing with hues and spatial dynamics to capture the artist's soul. Among them, Jackson Pollock stood out as a maverick, sprawling vast canvases on the ground to unleash torrents of color through a dance of drips and splashes, wielding sticks and trowels in place of traditional brushes. His canvases, often an alchemical blend of paint, sand, and shards of glass, mirrored the tempestuous journey of his creative spirit. Initially, the abstract expressionist's nonrepresentational style, where the act of creation took center stage, puzzled much of the public. Yet, devoted critics like Harold Rosenberg and Clement Greenberg propelled the art into the limelight, coining terms like “Action Painting” to capture its dynamism. The phrase "abstract expressionism" first graced the pages of the New Yorker in 1936, thanks to Robert Coates.

Film

The cinematic world of the 1920s witnessed a flourish of expressionist techniques, as German directors such as F. W. Murnau, G. W. Pabst, and Robert Wiene translated the vibrant strokes of art and theater onto the vast canvas of the silver screen. Wiene’s groundbreaking film, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1919), emerged as the first true cinematic expressionist masterpiece, weaving a surreal tapestry with skewed camera angles, painted backdrops, and dramatic lighting to cast an eerie spell. This film is also heralded by historians as the inception of the horror genre.

Fast forward to the 1940s, directors like Billy Wilder, Michael Curtiz, and Otto Preminger harnessed these gothic visual techniques to birth a distinctly American genre: film noir. In classics such as Wilder’s Double Indemnity (1944) and Fritz Lang’s The Big Heat (1953), audiences encountered cynical, existentially troubled male protagonists ensnared by enigmatic dilemmas, often revolving around a dangerously alluring femme fatale. These noir tales were frequently drawn from the gritty detective novels of authors like James M. Cain, Raymond Chandler, and Dashiell Hammett. The characteristic black-and-white cinematography painted a stark canvas where gritty urban settings, sharp dialogue, and narrative devices like flashbacks and voiceovers plunged viewers into a world that rarely offered happy endings.

Early Twentieth-Century Painting

Much like its literary counterpart, expressionist painting delved deep into emotional and psychological realms, offering a fervent counterpoint to Realism. Among the vibrant array of expressionists were the Fauves, or "wild beasts," epitomized by talented Frenchmen Henri Matisse and Georges Rouault. Inspired by the bold innovations of van Gogh and Gauguin, they wielded vivid colors and distorted forms as raw conduits of emotion. Matisse orchestrated line and hue to distill the very essence of his subjects, renowned for the artful omissions as much as his deliberate inclusions. Conversely, Rouault's intense brushwork in portraits of noble figures like Christ revealed his unrestrained passion.

In Dresden, Germany, "The Bridge" (Die Brücke) artists embraced a darker hue of Expressionism, drawing from the haunting works of van Gogh, Gauguin, and Munch's iconic The Scream. Creators like Ludwig Kirchner, Emil Nolde, and Kokoschka painted with fervor, exploring angst-filled, introspective perspectives of both the world and themselves, their canvases often alive with the alienating bustle of Berlin's streets.

Meanwhile, in Munich, "The Blue Rider" (Der Blaue Reiter), spearheaded by Russian visionary Kandinsky, ventured further into abstraction. Kandinsky, alongside fellow "rider" Franz Marc, cast aside objectivity, crafting compositions of pure line and color, free from earthly forms. Marc's symbolic use of color and Kandinsky's geometric abstractions strove to capture the spiritual aspect of humanity, an intangible, yet profound essence.

1910–1920: The advent of formidable new weaponry—tanks rumbling across battlefields, lethal poison gas, and soaring airplanes—ushers in unprecedented devastation during World War I. Over ten million souls are lost, casting a shadow of deep disillusionment and despair across the globe.

Today: Rapid technological strides have made the creation of nuclear and biological arsenals more accessible, heightening the threat of a global catastrophe looming ominously over the world.

1910–1920: In Russia, the Bolshevik Revolution unfolds as Vladimir Lenin and his followers seize control, declaring the formation of the Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, a seismic shift in the political landscape.

Today: Russia, having moved away from its communist past, embarks on a journey toward democracy and a vibrant market economy, seeking to redefine its place in the modern world.

1910–1920: Expressionist literature, theater, and art burst onto the European scene, jolting audiences with their bold departure from Realism, capturing the essence of the avant-garde spirit.

Today: The power to shock inherent in art and literature has waned. No singular movement claims dominance, leaving many to feel a sense of ennui as contemporary artists and writers push the boundaries of experimentation.

Spring’s Awakening Wedekind’s Spring’s Awakening, first released to the public eye in 1891 but only gracing the stage in 1906, delves into the turbulent seas of adolescent sexuality with a uniquely modern and expressive flair. Across nineteen episodic spectacles, Wedekind unfolds the tales of young souls grappling with the tumult of sexual awakening, hindered by the obliviousness of their educators and guardians, who themselves are shackled by sexual repression. Wedekind's mastery of Expressionism shines through his use of intensely stylized dialogue, weaving together lyrical nuances with biting irony and everyday speech to craft a tone that dances between solemnity and comedy. He breaks the bounds of naturalistic theater by resurrecting a character from the dead. This play serves as a sharp critique of the hypocrisy and prudishness that permeated middle-class German society, facing heavy censorship but emerging nonetheless as one of Wedekind's triumphant creations.

The Citizens of CalaisThe Citizens of Calais thrust Kaiser into the literary spotlight almost instantly in 1917. Premiering at the twilight of World War I, the play resonated deeply with the weary German public, carrying a poignant message of reconciliation. Kaiser's plot draws from the legendary account of 1347 during the Hundred Years’ War between England and France. In a desperate bid to save Calais from annihilation, Eustache, a prosperous merchant, takes his own life, hoping to impart the value of free will and the courage it demands. This work is pivotal to expressionist ideology, portraying the "neuer Mensch" or "new man," a modern being extracting significance from chaos by owning his actions and setting a noble example. Many of Kaiser’s dramas feature a Christlike protagonist embodying this "New Man," destined to guide society toward a new era of camaraderie.

The Dream Play

Strindberg’s 1901 creation, The Dream Play, heralds many of the hallmarks of expressionist technique and theme through its exploration of the subconscious realm. The narrative follows the daughter of an Indian deity who, upon taking human form, embarks on a quest through interactions with emblematic figures to understand the futility of human life. Paralleling Christ's journey, albeit with a female protagonist, the play unfolds in sixteen scenes that leap across time like a dream, with symbols such as an ever-growing castle, a chrysanthemum, and a shawl encapsulating the dreamer's soul's confinement and struggle, alongside the crushing weight of human suffering. The characters, too, are rich with symbolism. Victoria, for example, embodies the quintessential yet unreachable ideal of womanhood. This play has secured its position as a cornerstone of European theater, continuing to captivate audiences today.

The Emperor Jones

Crafted and performed by Eugene O’Neill in 1920, The Emperor Jones stands as a pioneering American play that boldly employs expressionist methods, marking a milestone in O’Neill’s early career. Through a masterful blend of lighting, sound, and set design, along with symbolic gestures from the cast, O’Neill vividly unveils the inner workings of his protagonist's mind. Brutus Jones, an African American who is duped into ruling an island in the West Indies, flees through the jungle pursued by insurgent natives, confronting apparitions that mirror not only personal memories but also his racial lineage. In this way, Jones transcends the individual, embodying the racial archetype of black men. The play's impressive 204-performance run bolstered O’Neill’s resolve to further explore expressionistic techniques, seen in his subsequent works like the mask-laden The Great God Brown, the articulated thoughts of Strange Interlude (1928), and the choral experiments in Lazarus Laughed (1928).

The Metamorphosis

Published in 1915, Kafka's The Metamorphosis is perhaps his most celebrated and frequently anthologized piece. The narrative centers on Gregor Samsa, a traveling salesman who awakens to the horrifying reality of his transformation into a massive insect. Isolated and neglected by his family until his demise, Samsa’s metamorphosis serves as a potent symbol, often interpreted as a reflection of Kafka's own perceived inadequacy under the shadow of his domineering father. Thematically and stylistically, the story resonates with the experience of myriad expressionist artists and writers who endeavored to articulate their alienation from familial and societal norms, and their search for meaning in an indifferent world.

Poems

Trakl’s 1913 collection, Poems, remains the solitary volume he published during his lifetime. In the preface to Autumn Sonata: Selected Poems of Georg Trakl, Carolyn Forche lauds Trakl as “the first poet of German Expressionism,” highlighting his deep sense of alienation amidst the rigid structures of German industrial society, akin to contemporaries like Karl Kraus, Kokoschka, and Egon Schiele. Trakl’s verse encapsulates this alienation through fragmented, nightmarish imagery depicting a world engulfed by chaos, and a fragile self, battered yet striving to endure. The connections between these images are associative, rather than linear, as exemplified in these lines from A Romance to Night:

The murderer laughs until he grows pale in the wine,
Horror of death consumes the afflicted.
Naked and wounded, a nun prays
Before the Savior’s agony on the cross.

Although scholars debate Trakl's Christian influences, his work garners more attention than any other German expressionist poet. This is evidenced by critical studies like Francis Michael Sharp’s The Poet’s Madness: A Reading of Georg Trakl (1981), Richard Detsch’s Georg Trakl’s Poetry: Toward a Union of Opposites (1983), and a multitude of new translations, all attesting to his growing influence on modern poetry and his significance in understanding Expressionist literature.

Released in 2000, the film Pollock shines a spotlight on the tumultuous life of the iconic artist Jackson Pollock, portrayed by Ed Harris. A master of abstract expressionism, Pollock's era-defining influence during the 1940s and 1950s is vividly brought to life. The screenplay draws inspiration from the biography Jackson Pollock: An American Saga by Steven Naifeh and Gregory White Smith.

Mai Zetterling’s 1981 documentary, Stockholm, offers an evocative exploration of the Swedish capital, capturing its vibrant populace and influential leaders. The film also delves into history, providing a captivating introduction to the literary works of Strindberg.

In 1933, actor Paul Robeson commanded the screen in the cinematic interpretation of Eugene O’Neill’s powerful play, The Emperor Jones.

The Norwegian Film Institute champions the distribution of director Unni Straume’s cinematic creation, Dreamplay, a thoughtful adaptation of Strindberg's renowned The Dream Play.

Sources

Allen, Roy, Literary Life in German Expressionism and the Berlin Circles, UMI Research Press, 1983.

Bahr, Hermann, Expressionismus, 1916.

Benn, Gottfried, “The Confession of an Expressionist,” in Voices of German Expressionism, edited by Victor Miesel, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1970.

Benson, Renate, German Expressionist Drama: Ernst Toller and Georg Kaiser, Macmillan Press, 1984.

Forche, Carolyn, Introduction, in Autumn Sonata: Selected Poems of Georg Trakl, Asphodel Press, 1998.

Furness, R. S., Expressionism, Methuen, 1973.

Ritter, Mark, “The Unfinished Legacy of Early Expressionist Poetry: Benn, Heym, Van Hoddis and Lichtenstein,” in Passion and Rebellion: The Expressionist Heritage, edited by Stephen Eric Bronner and Douglas Kellner, J. F. Bergin, 1983, pp. 151–65.

Sokel, Walter H., The Writer in Extremis: Expressionism in Twentieth-Century German Literature, Stanford University Press, 1959.

Toller, Ernst, “Post-War German Drama,” in the Nation, Vol. CXXVII, No. 3305, November 7, 1928, pp. 488–89.

Weisstein, Ulrich, Expressionism as an International Literary Phenomenon, Didier, 1973.

Further Reading

Bridgwater, Patrick, Poet of Expressionist Berlin: The Life and Work of Georg Heym, Libris, 1991. Bridgwater provides an accessible and entertaining biography of one of the leading poets of the expressionist movement.

Brod, Max, Franz Kafka: A Biography, Da Capo, 1995. Brod was a friend of Kafka’s, and his biography is an insider’s look at Kafka’s life. This is an accessible, very sensitive, and thorough biography written on Kafka.

Dove, Richard, He Was a German: A Biography of Ernst Toller, Libris, 1990. Toller was a socialist and leading expressionist dramatist. Dove provides an entertaining biography of his life and art.

Johnson, Walter, August Strindberg, Twayne, 1976. Johnson’s work on Strindberg’s life and plays is an excellent place to begin study of this expressionist writer.

Styan, John, Modern Drama in Theory and Practice: Expressionism and Epic Theater, Cambridge, 1981. Styan considers expressionist theater as embodying a “rigorous anti-realism” in its representation of the world. Styan argues that Expressionism is most coherent in theater as opposed to poetry or fiction.

Webb, Daniel Benjamin, The Demise of the “New Man”: An Analysis of Ten Plays from Late German Expressionism, Verlag Alfred Kummerle, 1973. Webb’s study traces the depiction of the “New Man” in expressionist plays from the 1920s and 1930s, concluding that playwrights became disillusioned with the ideal of such an entity and began writing about his downfall.

Willet, John, Expressionism, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970. Willet considers the expressionist movement in relation to historical, political, and social developments.