The Black Power Movement

Even before their emancipation from slavery, African Americans endeavored to define their collective identity within the framework of American society. Despite the abolition of slavery, the right to vote, and legal decisions dismantling formal segregation, genuine equality remained elusive. By the 1960s, following the successes of civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X, some African Americans began to embrace their heritage to boost their self-esteem, forge a group identity, and create a platform for greater political influence. This movement, known as "black pride" or Black Nationalism, inspired many young African Americans to explore their cultural roots, grow their hair into "Afros," wear traditional African attire, and reject their "slave names" (a term Malcolm X used to describe most black given names). These tendencies are exemplified by Dee and Hakim-a-barber in "Everyday Use." The Black Panthers, led by former Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee president Stokely Carmichael, embodied these ideals with their "black power" slogan as they fought for civil rights and voter registration. However, by the early 1970s, many of these organizations faced criticism for discriminating against women in their structure and operations, prompting writers like Walker to highlight the voice of black women outside the broader political context.

The Nation of Islam

Another form of African American self-assertion that gained traction in the early 1970s was the Nation of Islam, a religious and political group founded in the 1930s and commonly known as the Black Muslims. This movement, led by Louis Farrakhan since Malcolm X's death in 1965, asserts that white society is inherently racist. Instead of seeking integration, the organization encourages African Americans to form an independent community within the United States, rejecting the back-to-Africa ideology of earlier separatists. Like Dee Johnson, who adopts the name Wangero Leewanika Kemanjo, Black Muslim followers often change their names to symbolically reject white society by discarding their "slave names." The Nation of Islam also promotes the home as the nucleus of community life, advocating for a male-led family with a supportive wife and mother.

The Black Arts Movement

The Black Arts movement emerged as the cultural extension of the Black Power movement. It represented a deliberate effort by numerous artists and critics to celebrate African-American culture for its unique forms, ideas, and styles, rather than viewing it as a derivative of European-American culture. This movement emphasized the importance of black artists and writers, as well as the legitimacy of various forms of black folk art, including quilts and other items typically used in daily life. Some artists, like Alice Walker, criticized the Black Arts movement for three specific shortcomings: its tendency to generalize the experiences of all black individuals, its predominantly masculine representation of blackness, and its implication that urban black experiences were more "authentic" than rural ones. Walker addressed these issues in her work "Everyday Use," offering an early and eloquent expression of Black Feminism.

Black Feminism

As the women's movement gained momentum in the early 1970s, many African-American women felt marginalized because it seemed to prioritize issues mainly relevant to white women. They noted, for example, that when suburban housewives expressed a desire to do more than manage their homes, they overlooked the experiences of African-American women, most of whom had long worked outside the home, as had their mothers and grandmothers. By the mid-1970s, many black women, including Walker, began to articulate a distinctly African-American form of feminism that celebrated the efforts of their immediate matriarchal ancestors. Some of these themes are explored in "Everyday Use."

1971: The Supreme Court endorses the practice of busing students to different schools to promote greater racial integration.

1995: Louis Farrakhan, leader of the Nation of Islam, orchestrates the Million Man March in Washington, DC, as a demonstration of unity and a platform for black men to affirm their commitment to family values.

1974: The Symbionese Liberation Army, a black militant group, abducts heiress Patty Hearst, compels her to participate in a bank robbery, and engages in several other criminal activities.

1996: Gang-related drive-by shootings result in the deaths of African-American musicians Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G.

1973: According to Census Bureau data, the poverty threshold for a two-person family stands at $2,984 per year.

1995: By this year, the poverty line for a two-person family rises to $10,259 annually.