with Dora when Alan was growing up, Frank had gone so far as to rip a picture of Christ (suffering in chains) off Alan’s bedroom wall when the boy was about twelve. He replaced it with a picture of a horse, its position to Alan’s bed “absolutely head on” and “all eyes.”

By the end of the first act, it has become increasingly apparent to Dysart and the audience that Alan has created his own religion, the god of which is Equus, who wears a chain perpetually in his mouth for “the sins of the world.” Alan would remove horses, Equus’ surrogates, from the stable (the “Temple”) late at night and ride naked and bareback through a large field until, on each ride, he reached a moment of orgasmic intensity that felt as though he and the horse, his god, had become “One Person.” Act 1 ends in such a climactic moment of apotheosis as Alan, under hypnosis, reenacts for Dysart such a ride upon Equus.

Act 2 begins with a continuation of Dysart’s monologue in the “present.” It is in the second act that Dysart, feeling certain Alan wants to tell him what happened the night he blinded the horses, gives the boy a placebo (supposedly a truth-inducing pill). Under the pill’s imagined influence Alan reenacts the date he had with Jill Mason, a girl also employed at the stable, during which she convinces him to go to see a “skinflick” with her. While they are watching the film, Alan’s father enters the cinema and spots his son. He creates a loud scene and forces Alan and Jill to leave. After a somewhat heated exchange between father and son, each obviously embarrassed at having caught the other in such a cinema, they part, and Jill leads Alan to the stable, intending to seduce him. Terrified that his gods the horses will see him having sex with Jill, Alan—now naked and in Jill’s arms—suffers impotence. He becomes enraged and manic, frightening Jill away by threatening her with a steel spike. Then, in growing darkness (while howling “Eyes! . . . White eyes—never closed! Eyes like flames—coming—coming! . . . God seest! God seest! . . . NO! . . .”), he stabs out the six horses’ eyes and collapses on the floor. Quickly, the light becomes bright, and Dysart enters the square to comfort and cure Alan. The doctor’s closing monologue voices his serious doubts about the efficacy and wisdom of the cure he will bring to Alan.

Early in Equus, Dysart tells the audience of a dream he had after his first interview with Alan. In the dream he wears a gold mask, wields a sharp knife and is “a chief priest in Homeric Greece.” He is officiating at an important ritual sacrifice of hundreds of children, their bodies laid out before him one by one, and his job is to cut open their abdomens and eviscerate them. Despite his efforts to look professional as he operates, he begins to feel nauseous. His mask begins to slip off his face; he fears his two assistants will notice his slipping mask, see his sweat and distress, and take his knife—and power—away from him. At the instant they do what he fears, he wakes. The dream’s central action, that of pagan sacrifices to a god or gods, is archetypal. Well it should be, since Peter Shaffer portrays in the play an archetypal struggle: that between the Apollonian tendency (its domain being the rational or conscious mind and controlled emotions) and the Dionysian (its domain being the irrational or unconscious mind and wild passions). Shaffer employs several dramatic devices in the play to exemplify this conflict.

The set of the play is itself such a device. Lying on the stage is a large circular platform, and centered upon this is a smaller arena-like square mounted on ball bearings so it can be turned in a circle. The play’s main action takes place within Dysart’s office, the square: a rational and lineal construct with sharp-cornered margins. The only time the square is rotated is when Alan is reliving his ride on his equine god, while his first horseback ride takes place outside the square and in the circle’s area. The circle, in fact, is the domain of Alan’s religious life, and just as lineal time is imposed upon cyclical time, it is significant that Shaffer chose to place the square within the circle and not vice versa. Psychologically speaking, the set’s arrangement is also appropriate because the foundation of civilized, rational consciousness is the primitive, irrational unconscious.

Because Alan’s religiosity and equine god are portrayed as rooted in the irrational, and because Dysart’s task is to purge him of his mental illness and thus his god, the play seems grounded in Greek tragedy, wherein characters suffer catastrophes for defying their gods. Besides Dysart’s numerous references and allusions to ancient Greece, Shaffer’s artistic debt to Greek tragedy is apparent in the staging: scenes are played between two actors, many scenes are framed by narrative commentary, the actors portraying horses wear masks, and all the actors—when not performing their scenes—serve as a chorus. Additionally, Shaffer uses as a backdrop for the set a half-circle of seats in tiers where part of the play’s audience is seated, as if in an amphitheater or—according to Shaffer’s notes—“a dissecting theatre,” either being an appropriate setting for Apollonian healer Dysart to purge Alan of his Dionysian excesses.

Rokeby Psychiatric Hospital

Rokeby Psychiatric Hospital. British psychiatric hospital to which teenager Alan Strang has been remanded by a court, after he blinded six horses with a metal spike. In contrast to the realistic clinical setting of Sidney Lumet’s 1977 film version of Equus, which included white-coated doctors tending clearly psychotic patients, the set of the original play carefully avoids realistic imagery, other than the occasional appearance of a nurse.

John Napier’s design for the set calls for a wooden square atop a wooden circle. The square resembles a boxing ring, which makes Alan and Dysart resemble evenly matched prize-fighters in their relentless rhetorical counterpunching. Functioning as witnesses, much like a Greek chorus, all other characters sit on benches behind the square, where they remain always visible to the audience. Napier’s stage directions include three tiers of audience seats placed around the circle, “in the fashion of a dissecting theater.” Metal horse-masks, donned by actors, are mounted on wooden poles.

Dalton’s stable

Dalton’s stable. Scene of the blinding incident, which is bloodlessly, almost balletically, reenacted at the play’s climax. To Alan, the stable is a temple for clandestine worship of his horse-god, Equus—and the site of his failed first attempt at sexual intercourse with Jill Mason.

*Mycenae

*Mycenae (my-SEE-nee). Ancient Greek site of pagan rituals of worship that are idealized by psychiatrist Martin Dysart, in contrast to the sterility that he believes characterizes the modern world.

Strang home

Strang home. Working-class household in southern England that is the site of various family conflicts, primarily over religion. In his bedroom, Alan reenacts secret rituals of worship before a poster-sized photograph of a horse, which has replaced an image of Christ in chains that his atheist father removed.

Beach

Beach. Site of six-year-old Alan’s first ride on a horse, Trojan, which was interrupted when his father pulled him off the horse. The psychologically traumatic scene is reenacted during the play.

Field of Ha-Ha

Field of Ha-Ha. Alan’s name for the site of his exultant clandestine night ride, which is reenacted at the end of the first act. He takes the name from a passage in the Old Testament: “He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha; and he smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting” (Job 39:25).

Equus debuted in 1973, at the onset of a decade in Britain marked by crisis and economic downturn. After World War II, Britain gradually rebuilt its prosperity using a moderately socialist approach. Several private institutions were nationalized, yet the foreign debt tripled. The Labour government of the late 1960s lost support due to the worsening economic conditions, particularly during the monetary devaluation crisis of 1967, when the nation's currency sharply declined against other global markets.

Although the economy saw slight improvement in 1969, the Conservative Party seized power in the 1970 election. In terms of foreign policy, the disastrous Suez Crisis of 1956, which saw England lose control of the crucial Suez Canal shipping route, clearly indicated that Britain was no longer a dominant world power. Since the peak of the British Empire in the early 20th century, significant territories had been relinquished, most notably when India, one of the Empire’s key colonies, gained independence in 1947. Starting in the late 1950s, the British government adopted a systematic policy of decolonization, progressively dismantling its extensive colonial empire.

In the early 1970s, the British government continued to grapple with inflation. Northern Ireland was beset by violence as conflicts between Protestant and Catholic factions persisted. These issues would challenge British governments throughout the decade. In early 1974, the Conservatives lost the general elections during a coal miners’ strike. The government's refusal to meet the miners' demands led to energy rationing and a fuel-conserving three-day work week. Although the Labour Party won, they lacked a full majority in Parliament, severely limiting their ability to implement policies favoring working people. Labour secured a full majority in Parliament in October 1974, but Britain continued to suffer from inflation and economic decline. Widespread economic dissatisfaction eventually led to the Conservative victory in 1979 and the election of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, whose tenure was fraught with controversy, partisan conflicts, and volatile public support.

On October 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria launched an attack on Israel, each side accusing the other of initiating the aggression (Israel had shot down two Syrian jets). The Yom Kippur War, named after the Jewish Holy Day of Atonement on which the conflict began, was the fourth Arab-Israeli war since 1948. The Soviet Union provided military support to the Arabs in response to U.S. backing of Israel, giving the war a distinct Cold War context involving Britain as well.

The most significant impact of the Arab-Israeli war on Western nations was the oil embargo imposed by Arab members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This embargo intensified an existing global energy crisis. Coupled with the energy crisis and other contributing factors, the West faced an inflation crisis, with many industrial nations experiencing double-digit annual inflation for the first time. The oil shock, along with rising grain prices, triggered a global monetary crisis, leading to a severe worldwide economic recession, the worst since the Great Depression of the 1930s. In Britain, these economic downturns fostered a growing sense of social despair.

The Bahamas achieved full independence on July 10, 1973, after 256 years as a British crown colony. The British Empire continued its steady march toward decolonization. As British influence diminished in various parts of the world, Britain's sovereignty faced challenges from the increasing movement towards union among Western European nations. In 1973, after a decade of debate, Britain joined the European Community, agreeing to collaborate on trade, agriculture, industry, the environment, foreign policy, and defense. The European Union (E.U.) was established in 1993 following the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty. Today, Britain remains a somewhat reluctant member of the E.U.; for instance, it chose not to adopt the common currency, the euro, which was introduced to global markets on January 4, 1999.

Across the Atlantic, 1973 was a year of significant upheaval in American society. U.S. troops were withdrawn from Vietnam, although bombing raids on the country persisted. The United States launched Skylab, its first space station. The U.S. Supreme Court legalized abortion in the landmark decision Roe v. Wade. Public approval for President Richard Nixon continued to decline as evidence mounted that he had authorized the June 17, 1972, burglary of Democratic National Committee offices at the Watergate complex in Washington. Like the controversy over Vietnam, Watergate became a symbol of deep divisions in American society and growing disillusionment with the integrity of national leaders. In late 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned under pressure, pleading no contest (nolo contendere) to charges of income tax evasion, setting the stage for further scandals that would shake the executive branch (Nixon himself, facing impeachment and removal from office, resigned the following year; other cabinet members, including Attorney General John Mitchell and Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman, were also implicated in the crime).

In the 1960s, London emerged as a global hub for theatre, fashion, and popular music. However, this prestigious image was somewhat marred by ongoing economic decline. With a few notable exceptions, 1973 was not a standout year for London theatre. Alan Ayckbourn’s Absurd Person Singular and David Storey’s Cromwell were among the few works that shared the spotlight with Shaffer’s Equus.

On the American stage, 1973 featured the premieres of Lanford Wilson’s Hot l Baltimore, Neil Simon’s The Good Doctor, and Stephen Sondheim’s blockbuster musical A Little Night Music.

Dramatic GenreEquus closely mirrors a suspense thriller in both form and structure, showcasing Shaffer’s love for detective stories. Dysart plays the role of a classic detective, meticulously uncovering the reasons behind Alan’s act of blinding six horses. Shaffer has explored various dramatic genres, including domestic tragedy, farce, and historical drama. Critics often highlight that Equus's distinct theatrical experience stems from its seamless blend of multiple dramatic genres. Besides being an effective suspense tale, the play is praised for its probing exploration of the origins of mental illness and its clever modern take on Greek tragedy. Its popularity among audiences and critics is due to its broad appeal. Similarly, Shaffer’s versatility is evident as he does not confine himself to any single dramatic style with each new play.

Point of View
In Equus—as in other works like Amadeus—Shaffer employs the dramatic device of the raisonneur, a kind of “color commentator” who directly engages with the audience, offering insights that help viewers understand the play’s events. Consequently, the perspective in Equus is predominantly that of Dysart, the play’s raisonneur, who provides the narrative framework. However, some parts of the play are clearly seen from Alan’s viewpoint, particularly the flashbacks that theatrically recreate Alan’s memories.

Staging
The set of Equus is designed to be flexible rather than realistic, accommodating various performance spaces. The play’s almost cinematic structure—comprising multiple, brief scenes in different locations—necessitates quick staging changes. This is achieved through a rotating turntable and other techniques like spot lighting and minimal use of props. For instance, Alan moves benches to create three stalls for a scene at Dalton’s stables. The use of mimed objects and actions is also integral to the play’s theatrical approach. Clive Barnes noted in the New York Times that Shaffer “has his theatre set up here as a kind of bullring with a section of the audience actually sitting on stage.” Both the audience members and actors are seated on stage, with actors standing to perform and then sitting back down, remaining visible to the audience. This minimal separation between stage and audience fosters an intimacy that enhances the drama’s intensity. Irving Wardle commented in the London Times that the stage “combines elements of rodeo, stable, and Greek amphitheatre.”

Temporal Organization
Instead of adhering to a strictly linear timeline, Equus intertwines a main plot set in the present with frequent flashbacks to past events. Dysart’s opening monologue in each act, along with certain therapy sessions with Alan, occur in the present. Flashbacks depict Alan’s childhood and the night of his crime, as well as moments in Dysart’s life leading up to his treatment of Alan. These various temporal strands are intricately woven together, with overlapping elements serving as transitions.

For example, the Nurse’s remarks to Dysart about Alan’s condition blend seamlessly with Dysart later recounting the same details to Hesther. By presenting both events simultaneously on stage, Shaffer employs a cinematic editing technique that allows the same subject to be discussed in two different settings at once. The Nurse informs Dysart that Alan has been experiencing nightmares during which he repeatedly screams "Ek!" In this instance, it’s Hesther, not Dysart, who asks "Ek?" but the Nurse continues, "Yes, Doctor. Ek." The past is unveiled in fragments, often enacted by the characters as they narrate the events in the present. Lighting and set design facilitate the actors’ transitions to different parts of the stage to reenact the past events being described.

Catharsis
Many critics have labeled Equus a “modern tragedy,” often referencing Aristotle’s principles of tragedy as outlined in his Poetics to explain the play’s dynamics. Although Equus doesn’t strictly adhere to the traditional formula for tragedy, it incorporates many of the genre’s key elements. One closely related aspect is catharsis: the purging of feelings of pity and fear, which Aristotle deemed the social function of tragedy. Parallel to catharsis is the concept of abreaction, which involves the release of emotional energy tied to a repressed idea, particularly through its conscious verbalization in a therapist’s presence. Consequently, the portrayal of Alan’s repressed memories serves a therapeutic purpose that mirrors the potential cathartic effect the play may have on its audience.

Philosophical Content
The 1964 full-length play Royal Hunt of the Sun: A Play Concerning the Conquest of Peru showcased Shaffer’s signature technique of juxtaposing two central characters (in that play, the Inca king Atahualpa and the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro) whose interactions create a dialectic on complex philosophical questions. This technique reappears in the pairing of Dr. Dysart and Alan and would later be evident in the characters of Mozart and Salieri in Shaffer’s 1979 play, Amadeus. Dysart and Alan symbolize philosophical archetypes of restrained rationalism and fervent instinct, respectively. As Alan’s violent act is dissected, Dysart encounters his own personal conflict. Treating Alan’s psychological issues merely transfers the burden onto Dysart himself.

The Horse Chorus
In Greek theatre, the masked chorus provides commentary on the play's events. Shaffer employs a similar idea with his chorus, though instead of speaking, they produce equine sounds like humming, thumping, and stamping. During early scenes involving Alan's interactions with horses, these choral noises heighten the emotional intensity, linking these moments to the foreshadowing of Alan's future actions. This non-realistic method offers the audience insight into Alan's mental state, as Shaffer notes, the noise "heralds or illustrates the presence of Equus the God."

The chorus includes six actors who portray Nugget and the other horses. There is no attempt to make them look realistic; they wear wire and leather horse-like masks that reveal the actors' faces beneath. Barnes noted that while "it is not easy to present men playing horses on stage without provoking giggles... here the horses live up to their reputed godhead." Mollie Panter-Downes observed in the New Yorker that "these masked presences standing in the shadows of the stable manage to suggest the eeriness and power of... the old hoofed god."

When Alan first mounts Nugget, the other horses lean forward, creating a visual effect that underscores Alan's belief that his god Equus inhabits all horses. By casting the same actor as both the Horseman and Nugget, a visual link is made, suggesting Alan's emotional transference from humans to horses.

1973: Children are generally seen as innocent, making violent acts like those committed by Alan especially baffling. As Hesther notes in Equus, even psychiatric experts "are going to be disgusted by the whole thing."

Today: The incidence of violent crimes by children surged in the late twentieth century. While the U.S. has been alarmed by a wave of youth violence, including several school shootings in 1998, such crimes are less prevalent in Britain. Nonetheless, isolated incidents and global media exposure have made British society aware of the potential for violence among troubled youth.

1973: The Conservative Party holds power in Parliament, but the British Labour Party is gaining momentum and will win significant elections the following year. However, after several more years of economic recession and other issues, voters will elect a new Conservative government in 1979, led by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.

Today: After eighteen years of Conservative control, the Labour Party won a landslide victory in the 1997 national elections. Tony Blair became Prime Minister, but many believe that "New Labour" has strayed so far from its traditional leftist policies that the election may not be the triumph for the working class it appears to be.

1973: Britain, like many industrialized Western nations, is experiencing an economic crisis marked by rampant inflation and labor unrest.

Today: The economy has largely stabilized. Conservative governments in the 1980s and early 1990s managed to curb inflation and privatize many national industries. However, these policies led to a greater disparity between the rich and poor in Britain, fueling class resentment similar to that expressed by Frank Strang in Equus.

1973: The British are known for their affection for animals, particularly horses. Shaffer needs to carefully craft Alan's crime in Equus to shock audiences without causing extreme outrage. The 1977 film adaptation portrays the blinding of the horses in a graphic and bloody manner, prompting protests from animal-rights activists and criticism from Shaffer himself.

Today: Like many cultures heavily influenced by media, the British have had to adapt to pervasive images of violence. Nonetheless, animal welfare remains a significant concern in Britain, where animal-rights activism is more prevalent than in many other countries.

Equus was turned into a movie in 1977 by United Artists, with Sidney Lumet as the director. Shaffer's screenplay earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium. The film also garnered Academy Award nominations for Best Actor (Richard Burton as Dr. Dysart) and Best Supporting Actor (Peter Firth as Alan).

In 1984, the BBC produced a sound recording of Equus, which was distributed in the United States by Audio-Forum.

Sources
Barnes, Clive. "Equus: A New Success on Broadway" in the New York Times, October 25, 1974, p. 26.

Billington, Michael. Review of Equus in the Manchester Guardian, July 27, 1973, p. 12.

Christie, Ian. Review of Equus in the Daily Express (London), July 27, 1973, p. 10.

Clum, John M. "Religion and Five Contemporary Plays: The Quest for God in a Godless World" in the South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. 77, no. 4, 1978, pp. 418-32.

Hewes, Henry. "The Crime of Dispassion" in the Saturday Review, January 25, 1975, p. 54.

Hughes, Catherine. "London’s Stars Come Out" in America.

Kerr, Walter. "Equus: A Play That Takes Risks and Emerges Victorious" in the New York Times, November 3, 1974, p. 11.

Klein, Dennis A. "Game-Playing in Four Plays by Peter Shaffer" in Peter Shaffer: A Casebook, edited by C. J. Gianakaris, Garland (New York), 1991, pp. 95-113.

Lambert, J. W. Review of Equus in Drama (London), Vol. 111, 1973, pp. 14-16.

Lawrence, Frank. "The Equus Aesthetic: The Doctor’s Dilemma" in Four Quarters, Vol. 29, no. 2, 1980, pp. 13-18.

Panter-Downes, Mollie. "Letter from London" in the New Yorker, November 12, 1973, pp. 181-84.

Peter Shaffer ("English Authors Series," Vol. 261, revised edition), Twayne, 1993.

Shaffer, Peter. "Equus: Playwright Peter Shaffer Interprets Its Ritual" in Vogue, February, 1975, p. 136.

Stacy, James R. "The Sun and the Horse: Peter Shaffer’s Search for Worship" in Peter Shaffer: A Casebook, edited by C. J. Gianakaris, Garland, 1991, pp. 95-113.

Walls, Doyle W. "Equus: Shaffer, Nietzsche, and the Neuroses of Health" in Modern Drama, Vol. 27, no. 3, 1984, pp. 314-23.

Wardle, Irving. "Shaffer’s Variation on a Theme" in the Times (London), July 27, 1973, p. 15.

Weightman, John. "Christ As Man and Horse" in Encounter, Vol. 44, no. 3, 1975, pp. 44-46.

Further ReadingContemporary Literary Criticism, Gale: Volume 5, Volume 14, Volume 18, Volume 37, Volume 60. This resource compiles a range of criticism and is an excellent starting point for research on Shaffer. The selections in these five volumes cover Shaffer’s entire career. For an overview of Shaffer’s life, refer to Volume 13 of the Dictionary of Literary Biography. Also, see Volume 7 of Gale’s Drama Criticism.

Cooke, Virginia, and Malcom Page, compilers. File on Shaffer, Methuen, 1987. This concise but valuable resource includes excerpts from various sources (reviews, interviews, etc.). It also features a chronology of works, production, and publication data, as well as information on Shaffer’s non-theatrical works.

Eberle, Thomas. Peter Shaffer: An Annotated Bibliography, Garland, 1991. This resource is designed to serve both teachers and students of dramatic literature as well as theatre professionals. Organized with each major play as a separate chapter, the bibliographic entries are divided into categories: editions of the text, play reviews, news reports, feature stories, scholarly essays, and where applicable, film adaptations and reviews. The coverage extends from March 1956 to May 1990 (through Lettice and Lovage). It also includes a complete chronology of Shaffer’s plays, and additional chapters on general works (biographies and analyses of multiple plays), interviews, and Shaffer’s early works (before Five Finger Exercise).

Gianakaris, C. J. Peter Shaffer, Macmillan (New York), 1992. This comprehensive study explores Shaffer and his body of work. Gianakaris remarks, "Five Finger Exercise and The Royal Hunt of the Sun signaled the arrival on the scene of a new, innovative voice in the theatre; Equus confirmed it." Through his detailed analysis of specific plays, Gianakaris identifies the recurring themes and techniques present in many of Shaffer’s theatrical pieces.

Gianakaris, C. J., editor. Peter Shaffer: A Casebook (‘‘Casebook on Modern Dramatists’’ series, Vol. 10), Garland, 1991. This anthology features ten essays on Shaffer and includes a 1990 interview with the playwright. Several essays offer comparative analyses of Shaffer’s key works. The collection also provides a thorough index of opening dates for Shaffer’s plays and a concise bibliography.

Klein, Dennis A. Peter Shaffer, revised edition, Twayne, 1993. This general study by a critic who has also written about Equus (‘‘Peter Shaffer’s Equus as a Modern Aristotelian Tragedy’’ in Studies in Iconography, Vol. 9, 1983) offers a comprehensive look at Shaffer’s works. The initial section outlines Shaffer’s life and discusses his early and lesser-known works. Each chapter on a major play includes sections on the plot, main characters, sources, symbols, themes, structure, stagecraft, and critical evaluation.