life.

Understanding Necessary Desires

Epicurus further divided natural desires into two subcategories: necessary desires and merely natural desires. Necessary desires are integral to our well-being and require priority. For Epicurus, the key to a fulfilling life was concentrating efforts on these essential needs rather than the pursuit of every natural desire.

The Three Fundamental Needs

The philosophy of Epicurus stands out for its nuanced understanding of three vital human needs: equanimity or peace of mind, bodily health and comfort, and the basic demands of life. He believed that few resources are required to satisfy these needs, and acquiring them is relatively straightforward. While illness is an inevitable aspect of life, Epicurus noted that acute pain is fleeting, and chronic ailments can coexist with a predominance of pleasure over pain. His philosophical inquiries focused less on physical health and more on achieving a tranquil mind, free from anxiety and concerns about the future or the afterlife.

Achieving Life's Simplicity and Goodness

Though the essence of a good life is found in simple pleasures, Epicurus asserted that realizing a life rich in goodness demands skill and continuous effort. He proposed two primary avenues to achieve this: the cultivation of virtue and the study of philosophy. These disciplines are essential in guiding individuals toward a life that minimizes pain and disturbance, aligning with the ultimate aim of health in the body and serenity in the soul.

Epicurus's thoughts, encapsulated in his Letter to Menoeceus, emphasize that understanding these fundamental aspects enables individuals to make choices that enhance both bodily well-being and mental tranquility. This vision of life offers a path to true blessedness, where the avoidance of unnecessary desires leads to genuine happiness and fulfillment.

In the realm of virtues, prudence reigns supreme, with its role intricately tied to the philosophy of living a life both virtuous and pleasant. The philosopher who championed this view argued that without a virtuous life, true happiness remains elusive. Among the various virtues, prudence is deemed primary, seen as the wellspring from which all other virtues flow.

Prudence, in this context, is akin to Dostoevski's notion of "solving the problem of existence." It involves a keen awareness of the value and consequences of our desires and actions. The prudent individual navigates life by weighing the benefits against the drawbacks of potential choices. Sometimes, prudence dictates enduring pain for greater pleasure, such as undergoing dental surgery to alleviate future discomfort. At other times, it advises refraining from certain pleasures to avoid subsequent suffering, like abstaining from wine to prevent illness. Epicurus proposed a metaphorical scale, which the wise employ to measure the pros and cons of their decisions, seeking a balance that maximizes well-being.

One of the most effective prudential strategies he advocated was cultivating independence from desire. This doesn’t arise from a desire to renounce worldly pleasures but from recognizing the freedom that comes from simplicity. By acclimating oneself to basic sustenance and modest surroundings, one minimizes future anxieties. The unpredictability of life is less daunting when one’s contentment isn’t tethered to luxury. Epicurus suggested that those who find satisfaction in life's essentials—bread and water—experience a pleasure comparable to that of the wealthy indulging in opulence. Such simplicity not only enhances physical health and mental clarity but also enriches the appreciation of occasional luxuries, which are enjoyed more thoroughly when they are rare.

Another prudent counsel from Epicurus is the notion of withdrawing from the tumult of public life. Much like Hobbes, he viewed humanity as its own formidable adversary. The natural desire for protection from others is undeniable, yet Epicurus questioned the wisdom of seeking security through the pursuit of public accolades and power. In his view, this path is fraught with risk and instability. Instead, he advocated for the "immunity" that a quiet, retired life offers, far from the competitive and often perilous world of human ambition.

Epicurus, in his exploration of justice, diverged significantly from the views of Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, aligning more closely with Democritus. He asserted that justice does not have its roots in nature, a claim that challenges the conventional wisdom of his predecessors. Instead, Epicurus proposed that justice is a social construct, emerging from "a pledge of mutual advantage to restrain men from harming one another and save them from being harmed." This concept suggests that justice is a flexible arrangement, molded by the needs and agreements within societies rather than by any inherent natural law.

Epicurus argued that justice is not an innate principle found in primitive tribes; it is neither universal nor static. What is deemed just in one society can differ vastly from another, and even within the same society, perceptions of justice can evolve with changing circumstances. This view underscores the adaptability of justice, as it must constantly align with the mutual benefits of the parties involved to remain valid and effective.

Epicurus also addressed a provocative question raised by Glaucon in Plato’s Republic: Is it advantageous to act unjustly if one can do so without being caught? Epicurus contended that the perceived benefits of such deceit are overshadowed by the constant fear of detection, which would taint any rewards gained through unjust actions. He emphasized that "the just man is most free from trouble, the unjust most full of trouble," advocating that the peace of mind obtained from living justly far outweighs any temporary gain from injustice.

Epicurus, a significant figure in ancient philosophy, proposed a worldview centered on the pursuit of a blissful life through mental hygiene and rational thought. He encouraged individuals, regardless of age, to engage with philosophy not as an escape or mere intellectual pursuit but as a practical tool to eliminate superstitions and fears. His ideas, which drew heavily from Democritus's naturalistic perspective, sought to liberate the human mind from the anxiety of religious fear and the dread of death.

Philosophy as Mental Hygiene

Epicurus advocated for the study of philosophy as a form of mental hygiene, which he believed was crucial in achieving a life devoid of distress and filled with joy. According to him, understanding the fundamental nature of the world could free individuals from the fears traditionally associated with divine retribution and mortality. By embracing a naturalistic perspective, Epicurus promised a liberation from the burdens of superstition and the existential anxiety surrounding death.

Naturalistic Worldview of Democritus

Epicurus found inspiration in the philosophy of Democritus, who asserted that the universe was not crafted by deities and lacked inherent purpose, emerging instead from the random collision of atoms in a void. This atomic theory provided two significant benefits: liberation from religious constraints and emancipation from the fear of death. Epicurus argued that those who embraced this view enjoyed a mental peace inaccessible to those who clung to traditional religious beliefs.

The Existence and Nature of Gods

While Epicurus did not deny the existence of gods, he redefined them away from the traditional, anthropomorphic conception. He suggested that gods, akin to celestial bodies, were composed of smooth, fine atoms akin to human souls. These divine beings, in their eternal and blessed state, were neither punitive nor concerned with human affairs. Epicurus attributed the common belief in vengeful gods to human tendencies to project their own characteristics onto other entities. Instead, he proposed that natural explanations, rather than superstitious interpretations, accounted for celestial events like eclipses and solstices.

The Fear of Death

Epicurus dismissed the fear of death as irrational, comparing its fearfulness to that of the gods. Upon death, he explained, the soul's atoms disperse, resulting in the end of consciousness as these atoms lose their collective sentience. Since good and evil are sensations, the absence of sensation in death means it holds no terror. In his Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus articulated, “So death, the most terrifying of ills, is nothing to us, since so long as we exist death is not with us; but when death comes, then we do not exist." This perspective encouraged individuals to focus on achieving a pleasant life rather than an extended one; knowing that death is inconsequential, they would no longer yearn for immortality.

Free Will and Determinism

Epicurus departed from Democritus on the concept of determinism, emphasizing a degree of human agency and control over certain events. He rejected the deterministic viewpoint that left no room for human influence, advocating instead for a philosophy that acknowledged the role of necessity and chance, while still affirming that some actions are within human control. This belief offered hope and purpose, contrasting sharply with a deterministic outlook that led to despair. Epicurus, akin to the Stoic philosopher Epictetus, emphasized the wisdom of recognizing the limitations of human existence and cultivating contentment within those boundaries.

In essence, Epicurus championed a philosophy that elevated human happiness by removing irrational fears and embracing a worldview grounded in rational thought and natural principles. By focusing on the pursuit of pleasure and the understanding of nature, he proposed a life akin to that of "a god among men," where companionship and wisdom prevailed over superstition and dread.