The Definition of an Epic

In A Glossary of Literary Terms, literary scholar M. H. Abrams outlines five crucial features of epic literature: (1) "The hero is a figure of great national or even cosmic importance;" (2) "The setting of the poem is grand in scope, and may encompass the entire world, or even larger;" (3) "The action involves superhuman feats in battle;" (4) "In these grand actions, the gods and other supernatural beings take an interest or even an active role;" and (5) "An epic poem is a ceremonial performance, narrated in a ceremonial style that is intentionally distanced from everyday speech and is proportionate to the grandeur and formality of the heroic subject and epic structure" (p. 52). The Epic of Gilgamesh meets all these characteristics in unique ways.

Orality and Performance

A notable feature of the Epic of Gilgamesh is the story's sense of breathless immediacy. The Epic creates this effect by situating the tale in a setting that mimics the oral tradition in which it was originally performed. The opening lines give a sense that this is not an ancient tale, but one unfolding right now. The narrative "I" in the Prologue places the reader at the city walls of Uruk, bridging the gap between ancient times and the present moment, inviting the audience to touch the walls, feel their strength, and appreciate their splendor. These walls, the narrative voice proclaims, belong to the great Gilgamesh, and now I will tell you his story. This sense of immediacy persists throughout the Epic.

In medias res

Epics traditionally begin "in medias res," or "in the middle of things." Although this characteristic was initially associated with Greek and Roman epics like The Odyssey and The Iliad, it also applies to The Epic of Gilgamesh. The story starts not at the beginning of Gilgamesh's life, but somewhere in the middle. He is first depicted as a young, impulsive king, indifferent to the impact of his actions and desires on his people's well-being. This technique allows the reader to measure Gilgamesh's growth as a character.

The Epithet

Another essential technique of the epic style is the use of "epithets"—typically adjectives or recurring adjective phrases that reveal the attributes or personality of people, places, and things in the story: "strong-walled Uruk" (1.68), "Humbaba whose name is 'Hugeness'" (1.71), "Shamash the Protector" (1.78), and Utnapishtim "the Faraway" (1.97). Epic epithets are an effective way to track a character and their development.

Literary Formulae and Set-Pieces in the High Style

A third characteristic of the epic style lies in its elevated, formal language and recurring formulaic phrases. The dialogue often appears stiff and rehearsed, as though prepared for a ceremonial occasion. In chapter 2, "The Forest Journey," Gilgamesh cries out for help: "By the life of my mother Ninsun who gave me birth, and by the life of my father, divine Lugulbanda, let me live to be the wonder of my mother, as when she nursed me on her lap" (1. 80). These formal invocations of deities elevate the task, imbuing it with a sense of sacred mission undertaken for his city and divine lineage. Later, as he confronts Humbaba, Gilgamesh appeals to his patron god: "O glorious Shamash, I have followed the road you commanded but now if you send no succor how shall I escape?" (1. 81). The use of "apostrophe," a rhetorical device marked by "O," signals a formal invocation of an absent person or personification.

Another significant aspect of the elevated style in the Epic is the inclusion of "laments," which are formal poems of praise and expressions of grief offered by the living for the dead. The finest example in the poem is Gilgamesh's lament for Enkidu, starting at line 94:

Hear me, great ones of Uruk, I weep for Enkidu, my friend. Bitterly moaning like a woman mourning, I weep for my brother. You were the axe at my side, My hand's strength, the sword in my belt, the shield before me, A glorious robe, my fairest ornament; An evil Fate has robbed me.

Gilgamesh's heartfelt lament ends with the sorrowful lines, "What is this sleep which holds you now? / You are lost in the dark and cannot hear me" (1. 95). Nearly all these formal speeches also serve to summarize or reiterate the characters' attitudes or even the narrative's action up to that point.

Balance and Repetition

A fourth literary characteristic of Gilgamesh, closely linked to its often formal, even stilted language, is its meticulously balanced structure and deliberate use of repetition at all levels. Almost every moment, event, or speech has a counterpart somewhere in the story. Known as "parallelism" and "antitheses," these repetitions and contrasting elements can indicate both a comparison and/or a contrast between the paired elements of the story. The repetitive elements can be analyzed in terms of structure, events, speeches, and numbers.

Repetition of Structure

The Epic of Gilgamesh is divided into two distinct halves, balanced along structural lines. The story pivots around Enkidu's death. In the first half, Gilgamesh ventures into the Forest of the Cedars to defeat Humbaba; in the second half, he seeks out Utnapishtim in the realm of the gods. Gilgamesh's initial triumphs and personal accolades contrast sharply with the frustrations and personal struggles he faces later. Enkidu's physical presence in the beginning is contrasted with his significant absence in the latter part of the tale.

Repetition of Events

The first half of the Epic of Gilgamesh is rife with repetition: Gilgamesh and Enkidu serve as reflections of each other; they defeat two semi-divine creatures, Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven; and both characters experience a series of dreams. The second half of the Epic often echoes earlier events, such as Gilgamesh's twelve-league journey through the darkness of Mashu, which is overshadowed by his 120-pole voyage across the waters of death. Events in the latter half mirror those in the first: Enkidu's funeral and Gilgamesh's mourning for his friend are paralleled by Gilgamesh's own funeral and Uruk's praise for their deceased king. Additionally, Gilgamesh's quest to find Utnapishtim mirrors his earlier journey to the Cedar Forest.

Repetition of Speeches

Speeches within the Epic of Gilgamesh may be partially repeated by different characters or, more notably, entirely reiterated at various points in the narrative. This technique is most significant in chapter 4, "The Search for Everlasting Life." During his perilous journey from the Country of the Living to the gods' abode, Gilgamesh meets Siduri, the goddess of the vine and wine; Urshanabi, "the ferryman of Utnapishtim," who helps him cross the waters of death; and finally Utnapishtim himself, the immortal human. Each encounter follows a similar structure.

1. Each deity initially opposes Gilgamesh, prompting him to respond with a summary of his achievements and identity: "I am Gilgamesh who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven, I killed the watchman of the cedar forest, I overthrew Humbaba who lived in the forest, and I killed the lions in the passes of the mountains."

2. The deity, in this instance Siduri, repeats Gilgamesh's claim but questions him further: "If you are that Gilgamesh who seized and killed the Bull of Heaven, who killed the watchman of the forest, who overthrew Humbaba that lived in the forest, and killed the lions in the passes of the mountains, why are your cheeks so starved and why is your face so drawn?"

3. Gilgamesh's response incorporates the deity's questions and ends with his ultimate reason for his journey: "And why should not my cheeks be starved and my face drawn?" for "Enkidu my brother, whom I loved, the end of mortality has overtaken him" (1. 101).

4. In each instance, the divine figure provides Gilgamesh with guidance for his life, essentially presenting a complete worldview. However, the pattern diverges here as each deity offers Gilgamesh different counsel. Siduri advises him to enjoy life by eating, drinking, and being joyful. Urshanabi, whose sailing equipment Gilgamesh has broken, instructs him to construct a new means of propelling the ferry to meet Utnapishtim. Ultimately, Utnapishtim discloses to Gilgamesh that "There is no permanence" (I. 106). Thus, the Epic of Gilgamesh presents significant patterns of similarity and repetition, yet deviations from these patterns can also provide crucial insights into the narrative.

Repetition of Numbers

Repetitions involving numbers like two (such as the two halves of the story or the two balanced main characters) or three (like Gilgamesh's three dreams or the three quests) are well-known features of oral storytelling. An even more prominent symbolic number in the Epic of Gilgamesh is seven, occasionally combined with two and three. Often seen as a "perfect" number or a symbol of "completion" or "wholeness," seven recurs throughout the epic: the "seven sages" laid Uruk's foundations (I. 61); Enlil equips Humbaba with "sevenfold terrors" to guard the forest (I. 71); the gate of Uruk has seven bolts (I. 73); and during the pivotal battle with Humbaba, the giant unleashes the "seven splendors" against the warriors; they fell "seven cedars" to provoke Humbaba, and they kill the giant with three strikes to the neck, severing his head (I. 83). This symbolic use of numbers is especially prominent in the flood narrative and continues throughout the Epic.

Annular or Ring Structure

Another closely related literary technique in the Epic is its "annular" or "ring-like" structure. Essentially, the end of the story echoes the beginning by repeating key images and phrases. The Prologue starts with: "I will proclaim to the world the deeds of Gilgamesh. This was the man to whom all things were known; this was the man who knew all the countries of the world. He was wise, he saw mysteries and knew secret things..." (I. 61). Chapter 6, "The Return" of Gilgamesh to Uruk, concludes with, "This too was the work of Gilgamesh, the king, who knew the countries of the world. He was wise, he saw mysteries and knew secret things..." (I. 117). By linking the conclusion back to the beginning, the narrative achieves a sense of completeness, and the Epic invites the reader to relive Gilgamesh's journey anew.

*Uruk

*Uruk (EW-rewk). Ancient city in what is now Iraq (now called Tall al-Warka) over which the demigod Gilgamesh rules. During the period in which the epic is set (c. 2600 b.c.e.), Uruk was one of the largest cities in the world. Protected by brick walls, it preserved urban technology and order. In all versions of The Gilgamesh Epic, the city’s king or “shepherd,” Gilgamesh (also known as Bilgamesh), combines within himself civilization and fierce lawlessness, so that he can relate both to the city and to the barbarous rest of the world.

The split within Gilgamesh’s character helps the urbanites, since it gives Gilgamesh the ferocity to defend them. Nonetheless, they resent his disorderliness, particularly his leading the young in revels throughout such sacred precincts as Egalmah, the temple complex governed by the goddess Ninsun, Gilgamesh’s mother. Because of public resentment, Gilgamesh’s Uruk appears to be a grim totalitarian state. However, the prostitute whom he employs to lure Engidu (also called Enkidu) there, extols Uruk as a joyous place in which people wear wide belts and attend festivals every day that are celebrated with beautiful music.

Nagbu

Nagbu (NAHG-bew). Chaotic abyss, believed to exist at the center of the earth. It is the source of all rivers and maintains the aboriginal condition before order (and mortality) came to the world. Its most characteristic figure is Utnapishtim, a Noah-like being who survived a world-wide flood, thus preparing him to dwell forever amid Nagbu’s timeless waters. Appropriately, Gilgamesh finds within the abyss the plant of immortality. In the best-known and fullest version of Gilgamesh, that composed by the exorcist priest Sin-leqi-uninni (c. 1600-1000 b.c.e.), Nagbu is especially important, with Gilgamesh identified in the very first line of the poem as the one who saw this abyss. Knowledge of it is presumably why he is then described as the “lord of wisdom” who knows everything.

Edin

Edin (AY-din). Grassland surrounding Uruk. Embodying the almost total wildness and contradictoriness of that hinterland, Engidu, its heaven-appointed guardian eats grass with gazelles and releases animals from traps but also defends shepherds from wolves. A primordial savage, Engidu reflects the vitality of the region, thus threatening Gilgamesh, who therefore introduces Engidu to a human relationship with a woman in order to weaken him. After sleeping with the woman, Engidu sees his vitalizing link to the land weakened; animals desert him, and he loses in battle to Gilgamesh. However, Engidu retains sufficient rustic skills to help Gilgamesh during campaigns through Edin.

Although the epic does not dwell on the economic importance of Edin as Uruk’s primary source of raw materials or its strategic importance as a buffer zone around the city, readers should be aware of these functions. They explain why Gilgamesh must subdue Engidu, thereby symbolically conquering Edin.

Cedar wood

Cedar wood. Gloomy, dense forest area even farther from civilization than grassy Edin. Early versions of The Gilgamesh Epic—those in Babylonian and Hittite—locate this forest in the east (presumably in what is now Iran). Because of gradual deforestation in that zone, late Akkadian versions of the epic, such as Sin-leqi-uninni’s, place this forest in the west, probably in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains of Syria.

The guardian of the cedars is named Humbaba in Akkadian and Huwawa in Sumerian, Old Babylonian, and Hittite. Since the guardian breathes fire, some scholars have speculated that he personifies an eruption of lava, and thus the forest must be on a volcano. Equally, he might allegorize forest tribes conquered by Uruk; therefore, description of him as a monster who deserves death would explain how writers of The Gilgamesh Epic justified killing and robbing those tribes of their precious cedars. The earliest versions declare the guardian to be a danger to humanity, and Sin-leqi-unnini’s version terms Humbaba an enemy of Shamesh, the god of light and law. As early as the Old Babylonian version, Huwawa’s voice is likened to the flood (thus comparing him to Nagbu, a place of chaotic waters) and he is also described as a “siege-engine,” a metaphor that treats him (and consequently the region he represents) as an enemy of cities such as Uruk.

Heaven

Heaven. Realm of the gods above the earth. It can be reached via Mashu, which is also the route to Nagbu. Although Gilgamesh does not conquer Heaven itself, he does kill the Bull of Heaven—the guardian sent from Heaven to earth to destroy Gilgamesh. In a sense, Gilgamesh makes his power felt even in Heaven. Modern readers might assume that Heaven is the supreme power; however, in coercing the heavenly gods to attack Gilgamesh, Ishtar threatens to raise Nagbu, thereby implying that Nagbu is more fearsome than Heaven.

Mashu

Mashu (MA-shew). Legendary mountain with twin peaks, connecting the three realms: the “above” (Heaven), the “land” (Earth), and the “below” (Nagbu). These realms guard the route of Shamash, the sun god. Mashu means “twins.” A possible reason for the mountain’s having twin peaks includes their symbolizing the principal divisions in the Sun’s journey, its light, celestial path during the day and its dark, subterranean one during the night.

Embodying Mashu’s role as guardian are a pair of scorpion people, so fearsome that at first they terrify Gilgamesh. They open Mashu’s gates, allowing him to enter caverns through which the Sun passes by night. After traveling through these caverns for twenty-four hours, Gilgamesh reaches a Garden of Precious Stones. The garden’s vine-covered cedar trees with carnelian fruit and lapis-lazuli leaves make it is an earthly paradise that may threaten Gilgamesh’s journey by tempting him to stay.

Sea

Sea. “Waters of death” believed to surround land. At its “lip” (its shore), Siduri the Barmaid (presumably a manifestation of the goddess Ishtar) guards the sea. She embodies its inherently feminine qualities. No mortal has previously traversed it, but, with the aid of the supernatural boatman, Urshanabi, Gilgamesh crosses the sea to Nagbu.

History and Recovery of the Epic of Gilgamesh

The scholarly reception of the Epic of Gilgamesh mirrors the evolution of ancient Near Eastern archaeology over the past 150 years. The Epic was first discovered on tablets from the palace library of Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria (668-627 B.C.), in Nineveh. The Epic consisted of twelve fragmented clay tablets inscribed with cuneiform script. Since that initial find, portions of the story have been unearthed across the region, dating from various periods and in multiple languages. By comparing the differences among these tablets and various versions, scholars have been able to reconstruct the history of the Epic's composition. Although the complete literary history of the Epic is intricate, its formation can be divided into four primary phases: (1) the period of oral composition and circulation, (2) the Sumerian tales of Gilgamesh, (3) the Akkadian and Babylonian epics, and (4) the Standard Version.

First, the historical Gilgamesh ruled Uruk in southern Mesopotamia around 2700 B.C., and various historical artifacts confirm his existence. As is typical in traditional cultures, stories of the king's exploits were circulated orally among the populace before being written down, likely around 2500 B.C.

Second, the Sumerians inscribed at least five distinct Gilgamesh stories onto clay tablets, the earliest of which dates to around 2100 B.C. These stories are now known as "Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish," "Gilgamesh and the Land of the Living," "Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven," "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld," and "The Death of Gilgamesh." It is significant to note that these stories shared little except the same central character. They were not unified into a single narrative nor did they share a common theme.

Third, these separate Sumerian stories became the foundation for the Babylonian (or Akkadian) Epic of Gilgamesh, composed around 1700 B.C. The Babylonian editor(s) combined elements of the earlier Sumerian tales to create a cohesive story of Gilgamesh's quest for the meaning of life and his struggle against death. This Babylonian edition introduced several key changes, including: (1) transforming Enkidu from Gilgamesh's servant, as he appears in the Sumerian tales, to an equal and companion; (2) adding a hymn-like Prologue and conclusion, and enhancing the use of formulaic sayings and set-pieces; and (3) incorporating the ancient legend of Utnapishtim and the great flood. This Babylonian version became well-known throughout the ancient Near East in a variety of languages.

Finally, rather than introducing new stories or removing old material, the Epic became fixed in the so-called Standard Version, attributed to the author Sin-leqi-unninni, who lived around 1300 B.C. This Standard Version is the one discovered in Ashurbanipal's library. For concise overviews of the Epic's history of composition, see the introductions to the translations by N. K. Sandars, Maureen Gallery Kovacs, and Stephanie Dalley.

About the Author
The Epic of Gilgamesh is not the work of a single author as we understand it today. Instead, it emerged through the contributions of various ancient Near Eastern cultures, particularly those in the Euphrates River valley. Initially, it was an oral tradition, recited by community storytellers, possibly priests, to attentive audiences. These narratives were likely repeated for generations before being "written" by scribes using an ancient writing system known as "cuneiform." These scribes inscribed the oral tales onto clay tablets with a pointed, triangular stick, and these tablets were preserved in royal libraries. The most renowned of these libraries belonged to Ashurbanipal, the king of Babylon in the seventh century B.C., though fragments of the Epic of Gilgamesh from various periods have been discovered. The stories in the Gilgamesh cycle were probably first transcribed into cuneiform by ancient Sumerian scribes around 3,500 to 4,000 years ago. The narrative was passed down through successive civilizations to the Babylonians, who modified and integrated the stories into their own culture, resulting in a so-called Standard Version around 1500 B.C.

The Epic of Gilgamesh remained lost for millennia until archaeologists started uncovering the ancient tablets in the nineteenth century. Consequently, the English translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh we have today is the culmination of extensive scholarly work, archaeological discoveries, historical research, and linguistic analysis. Despite all this academic effort, we cannot be entirely certain about every detail of the Gilgamesh epic. Some parts of the story are missing due to broken sections of the existing cuneiform tablets found in ancient ruins. Additionally, some linguistic elements are so obscure that modern translators cannot determine their precise meaning. Therefore, the story we read today is often a reconstruction—the best interpretation by various scholars—of the original narrative. As new tablets are unearthed, revealing more fragments of the Gilgamesh epic or other works from the same language and era, our understanding of the Epic of Gilgamesh continues to expand.

The Epic of Gilgamesh was originally composed as poetry, though not in the rhyming verse that modern readers typically associate with poetry. Its style is more akin to the alliterative tradition found in poems like Beowulf. A widely accessible and readable translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh is the narrative version by N. K. Sandars, among many other available editions. Sandars's translation converts the poetic form of the so-called Standard, or Babylonian, Version of the Epic of Gilgamesh into a narrative or story format.

Furthermore, the Epic likely originated as five or six separate Sumerian tales that were later adapted by various cultures, especially the Babylonians. The current translation divides the original story, found on twelve tablets, into eight sections: seven chapters and a prologue. Thus, the Epic of Gilgamesh has been reshaped in language, style, and structure for modern readers.

Utnapishtim: The Mesopotamian Noah

When the Epic was first discovered, it was immediately recognized for its literary and historical significance. It gained particular attention for its account of Utnapishtim and the flood. The flood story is located in Tablet XI of the Epic and is derived from an earlier story known as "The Myth of Atrahasis." Readers were especially intrigued by the similarities between Utnapishtim's story and the Old Testament account of Noah and the Flood, found in Genesis 6:19-18. What was even more surprising was that Utnapishtim's story predates the biblical account of Noah and the ark. In The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels, 2nd ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949, pp. 224-69, Alexander Heidel compares and contrasts Noah's story with Utnapishtim's:

Utnapishtim: The flood is decreed by an assembly of gods due to humanity's clamor: "The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel," says Enlil (1. 108). This emphasizes the divine capriciousness and polytheism of the Mesopotamian pantheon. Although Enlil instigates the action, not all gods agree, specifically Ea and Ishtar.

Noah: The flood is attributed to a single god due to humanity's wickedness: "Now the earth was corrupt in God's sight, and the earth was filled with violence" (Genesis 6:11). This underscores divine judgment and Hebrew monotheism, the worship of one all-powerful god.

Utnapishtim: He is spared because he is favored by Ea, demonstrated by his obedience to the god's command.

Noah: He is spared due to his singular righteousness, shown by his obedience to the god's command.

Utnapishtim: The storm is immediate and devastating, with only a few days' warning.

Noah: The storm is preceded by a long period during which humanity could change its ways.

Utnapishtim: The great boat is square-shaped (120 x 120 cubits) with seven decks, symbolizing the design of the great Mesopotamian ziggurats or step-temples. It is constructed in seven days out of wood and sealed with pitch and asphalt. Utnapishtim loads the boat with his family, kin, wealth, craftsmen, and "the beast of the field, both wild and tame" (1. 109).

Noah: The Ark, more accurately boat-shaped (300 x 50 x 30 cubits), had three decks and a door. Constructed from wood and sealed with pitch, Noah loaded it with food, his family, and "of every living thing of all flesh, you shall bring two of every sort into the ark, to keep them alive with you; they shall be male and female" (Genesis 6:19).

Utnapishtim: The storm raged for six days and nights; on the seventh day, it ceased, leaving humanity dead and the world desolate. Utnapishtim recounts, "I looked at the face of the world and there was silence, all mankind was turned to clay. The surface of the sea stretched as flat as a rooftop; I opened a hatch and light fell on my face. Then I bowed my face and I wept, the tears streamed down my face, for on every side was a waste of water" (1.111). The boat eventually settled on "the mountain of Nisir" (1.111).

Noah: The storm lasted for 40 days and nights, and "on that day all the fountains of the great deep burst forth, and the windows of the heavens were opened" (Genesis 7:11). The floodwaters covered the earth, annihilating all life. The ark came to rest on "the mountains of Ararat" (Genesis 8:4).

Utnapishtim: Seven days after the boat grounded, Utnapishtim released a dove and a swallow, both of which returned. He then released a raven, which found dry land and did not come back. Utnapishtim then "made a sacrifice and poured out a libation on the mountain top," and when "the gods smelled the sweet savour, they gathered like flies over the sacrifice" (1.111).

Noah: Forty days after the ark settled, Noah sent out a raven and a dove at seven-day intervals. The dove eventually returned with "a freshly plucked olive leaf" (Genesis 8:11), signaling dry land. Following this, Noah offered burnt offerings on an altar. When the Lord smelled the pleasing aroma, He said in His heart, "I will never again curse the ground because of man..." (Genesis 8:21).

Utnapishtim: Ishtar visited Utnapishtim and offered "her necklace with the jewels of heaven" as a remembrance of the flood, barring Enlil from the sacrifice (1.112). To make amends, Enlil blessed Utnapishtim and his wife with immortality. "Thus it was," Utnapishtim said, "that the gods took me and placed me here to live in the distance, at the mouth of rivers" (1.113).

Noah: God blessed Noah and his family, instructing them to repopulate the earth. He offered the rainbow as "the sign of the covenant which I have established between me and all the flesh that is upon the earth" (Genesis 9:17). Before the flood, biblical figures were said to live for hundreds of years. After this event, their lifespans became more recognizably human.

The debate over the "precedence" of which narrative emerged first remains unresolved. Heidel suggests that both stories might have originated from a common source. However, the majority of scholars agree that the Mesopotamian myth predates the Hebrew account. Given that cuneiform texts are significantly older than the biblical ones, most scholars believe that biblical authors adapted the Mesopotamian narrative to fit their own historical and theological contexts.

Development of the Epic

The Epic of Gilgamesh is the culmination of various ancient Mesopotamian civilizations, specifically the city-states along the Tigris-Euphrates river valley in what is now Iraq. These cultures include the Sumerians, Akkadians (or Babylonians), and Assyrians. Experts in the ancient Near East have concluded that the Epic of Gilgamesh likely originated from five distinct Sumerian stories about Gilgamesh. These stories are known as "Gilgamesh and Agga of Kish," "Gilgamesh and the Land of the Living," "Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven," "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld," and "The Death of Gilgamesh." Jeffrey H. Tigay, who authored the definitive work on the literary and historical evolution of the Epic, asserts that the ancient oral tales of Gilgamesh were probably first transcribed in cuneiform around 2500 B.C. by Sumerian scribes. The earliest surviving copies, however, date back to around 2100 B.C., approximately 500 years after the historical Gilgamesh ruled Uruk. A later Akkadian author (or authors) compiled and adapted these distinct Sumerian narratives into a more cohesive and comprehensive epic. By this period, the Epic had already spread widely across the ancient Near East, with copies discovered in Hittite and Hurrian, and as far afield as modern-day Palestine and Turkey. The Epic continued to undergo minor revisions until it was standardized in a version traditionally attributed to the scribe Sin-leqi-unninni around 1300 B.C. This version, which is the most fully preserved, was found by archaeologists in Ashurbanipal's library in Nineveh (668-627 B.C.) (Jeffrey H. Tigay, The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982, pp. 248-50). N. K. Sandars' present translation is based on this Standard Version, though the text will continue to evolve with new archaeological discoveries and as scholars gain a deeper understanding of the language, culture, and history of these ancient societies.

Events Historical and Mythological

The Epic of Gilgamesh is notable for both the dangers and promises inherent in its historical and geographical context. According to the well-known Sumerian "King-List," which traces royal lineage from the time "When kingship was lowered from heaven" through the reigns during the great flood, until the fall of Uruk, Gilgamesh was a historical figure who ruled around 2700 B.C. He is referred to as "the divine Gilgamesh...[who] ruled 126 years" ("Sumerian King-List," trans. A. Leo Oppenheimer, in Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, ed. James A. Pritchard, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950, p. 266). While it is difficult to ascertain exact details, events such as Gilgamesh's journey to the Cedar Forest to confront Humbaba may mirror the historical Uruk's trade needs, quest for natural resources, and later conflicts with neighboring city-states over essential materials like wood.

Further insights into daily life are gleaned from Enkidu's gradual humanization through the Courtesan's influence: "This transformation is achieved by eating bread, drinking beer, anointing oneself, and clothing oneself... Bread, beer, oil, and clothing are the staples which were distributed as daily rations by the central institutions, such as the temple or palace, to a large segment of the population; these rations were their only means of subsistence" (Johannes Renger, "Mesopotamian Epic Literature," p. 44). Additionally, the civilizations along the Tigris-Euphrates river valley relied on the rivers for fertile soil that supported their agriculture. However, while the rivers sustained life, they also caused frequent and devastating floods. The Epic portrays these calamities, as Gilgamesh himself "looked over the wall and [he] see[s] the bodies floating on the river, and that will be [his] lot also" (1. 72). Even the gods were not immune, with Ishtar "crying out like a woman in travail" upon seeing her people floating in the ocean "like the spawn of fish" (1. 110) during Utnapishtim's flood. Similarly, Ishtar's Bull of Heaven symbolizes another great fear of the ancient world: drought, famine, and natural disaster. Anu warns Ishtar, "If I do what you desire, there will be seven years of drought throughout Uruk when corn will be seedless husks" (1. 87). Thus, the ancient Mesopotamians were caught between the abundance provided by their river valley and the suffering caused by its floods and droughts.

Lastly, the Epic of Gilgamesh does not encompass all the tales about Gilgamesh. He is also depicted in the pantheon of gods as "an underworld deity, a judge there and sometimes called its king. His statues or figurines appear in burial rites for the dead, and his cult [official worship] was particularly significant in the month of Ab (July-August), when nature itself, as it were, expired" (William L. Moran, "Introduction," in David Ferry's Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse, [New York: Noonday Press, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1992], p. ix).

Ancient Mesopotamia: Known for creating the first writing system, cuneiform, and introducing widespread wheeled transportation. They also excelled in metalworking, extensive irrigation, agricultural production, and monumental construction projects, the remnants of which are still visible after thousands of years.

Modern Western Civilization: Defined by rapid technological advancements, forming a "global village" where travel and communication with any part of the world (or even space) is possible. There is increased human intervention in natural processes, including nuclear power and warfare, genetic engineering, disease prevention, pharmaceuticals, weather prediction, flood control, agricultural production, and chemical treatments.

Ancient Mesopotamia: A highly stratified and predominantly male-dominated society, both politically and culturally. The priestly caste and ruling elite held the power and wealth. Individual city-states, rather than larger administrative units, were governed by divinely-instituted monarchies. Status was determined by birth, with minimal opportunities for advancement or education. Warfare was limited in scope and localized.

Modern Western Civilization: Economically stratified, but birth and gender are less influential in determining access to power and wealth. Political and religious leadership are generally distinct. Representative democracy replaces genetic monarchy, and education is widely accessible. The potential for "total war" exists, leading to widespread destruction.

Ancient Mesopotamia: An agrarian economy reliant on domesticated livestock and the annual cycles of flood and soil replenishment. Food supply was highly vulnerable to ecological disruptions. Industry was limited to traditional crafts (woodworking, metalworking, warcraft) and large-scale construction projects using lumber and baked brick (city walls, gates, royal, and religious structures). The first large urban centers, like Uruk and Ur (Biblical Erech), had populations nearing 50,000.

Modern Western Civilization: Features highly competitive, diverse, interdependent global and local economies increasingly based on information and communications rather than traditional commodities. The risk of famine is minimized through chemical and genetic interventions. Large-scale industries have complex inventory, production, and distribution systems. Some metropolitan areas have populations exceeding 20 million people.

Ancient Mesopotamia: A pantheon of gods related to natural phenomena. Religious festivals were tied to the annual seasonal cycle. Religious and political systems were closely interconnected, with local and patron deities celebrated in specific cities.

Modern Western Civilization: Diverse faiths, largely dominated by different forms of Christianity. Religious festivals remain but are often secularized. Religious and political systems are separate, though religious practices are often influenced by local customs and history.

The Epic of Gilgamesh has not yet garnered the same level of attention as Greek and Roman epics such as The Odyssey and The Iliad. Nonetheless, Adapa Films (http://www.lightlink.com/offline/Adapa.html) has created a video of the ancient Babylonian myth, "The Descent of Ishtar," and is in the process of producing, "The Epic of Gilgamesh Tablet XI: The Deluge." As stated in Adapa Film's promotional materials, "Adapa Films...aims to bridge the ancient and modern worlds by creating a video archive of re-enacted stories and myths from the ancient world utilizing the languages of these most ancient texts, live actors, computer imagery, as well as reconstructed ancient musical scores. Adapa introduces the viewer to seldom heard stories and beliefs and provides a unique window into the mindset of our most distant ancestors." The actors perform in Akkadian, with English subtitles provided. ''The Descent of Ishtar'' has received positive feedback from both scholars and critics, and "The Deluge" is expected to achieve similar acclaim.

Sources for Further Study

Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, and Others, Oxford World Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
This collection includes two versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Mesopotamian Creation Epic (the Enuma Elish), and other myths related to Gilgamesh and ancient Mesopotamian civilization. The texts adhere closely to the original cuneiform. The book features excellent notes and scholarly annotations.

Exploring Ancient World Cultures: An Introduction to Ancient World Cultures on the World-Wide Web, March 1997, http://eawc.evansville.edu.
Designed for beginning college students, the EAWC Homepage is an ideal starting point for online research on the ancient Near East. It provides links, essays, chronologies, historical information, literature, and resources for educators.

Ferry, David. Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse, New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1992.
This translation transforms the Epic of Gilgamesh into lyrical and evocative verse couplets. Following the twelve-tablet format, Ferry includes brief notes at the end of his translation. It is a haunting and poetic work rooted in solid academic research.

Gardner, John, and Maier, John. Gilgamesh Translated from the Sin-leqi-unninni Version, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984.
This translation offers a very readable rendition of the twelve tablets, complete with extensive notes and explanations for specific translation choices. The introduction provides an interesting perspective on the Epic, though applying Greek concepts like "Apollonian" and "Dionysian" (via Nietzsche) to a Mesopotamian myth seems a questionable approach to understanding the narrative's dynamics.

Gray, John. Near Eastern Mythology: Library of the World's Myths and Legends, New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1982.
A beautifully illustrated coffee-table book that covers the historical geography, religion, myths, and kingship of Mesopotamia, Canaan, and Israel.

Heidel, Alexander. The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels, 2nd ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949.
This is the most comprehensive examination of the relationship between Mesopotamian literature and the Old Testament. It brings a religious perspective to the discussion.

Joffe, Alexander. "Review of The Uruk World System: The Dynamics of Expansion of Early Mesopotamian Civilization, by Guillermo Algaze." Journal of World-Systems Research, Vol. 1, Book Review 4, 1995 Reprint, Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 21, 1994, pp. 512-16, http://csf.colorado.edu/wsystems/jwsr/voll/vl_r4.htm.
This technical article provides an in-depth review of contemporary theories regarding the rise, expansion, and decline of ancient Mesopotamian cities.

Jones, Charles E. ABZU: Guide to Resources for the Study of the Ancient Near East Available on the Internet, March 13, 1997, http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/RA/ABZU/ABZU.HTML.
Sponsored by the Research Archives of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, this comprehensive website offers links to resources for both general readers and research specialists. It includes a regional and subject index, as well as online journals, museums, and articles.

Katz, Solomon H., and Fritz Maytag. "Brewing an Ancient Beer," http7/beer tcm.hut.fi/SumerianBeer html.
Don't be misled by the title. This article, reprinted here from an uncredited source, is part of an ongoing scholarly debate about whether the ancient Mesopotamians first began gathering and domesticating grain for bread or beer production.

Kovaks, Maureen Gallery. The Epic of Gilgamesh, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989.
This is a faithful yet very readable translation of the Standard Version, adhering to the structure of the original eleven cuneiform tablets. Kovaks does not include Tablet XII, The Death of Gilgamesh, considering it not part of the original version. The book features a brief but insightful introduction, helpful summaries for each tablet, and a glossary of key terms and names.

Kramer, Samuel Noah. The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.
Though somewhat dated, Kramer's technical but accessible introduction remains the standard reference for Sumerian culture.

Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest, London: Thames and Hudson, 1978.
This detailed and engaging survey covers significant archaeological sites in the ancient Near East. Rich with illustrations and diagrams, it includes an important section on Uruk, the city of Gilgamesh.

Oates, Joan. Babylon, rev. ed., London: Thames and Hudson, 1986.
This excellent overview of Babylonian history and culture includes the Epic of Gilgamesh. It is well-illustrated and thoroughly documented.

Oriental Institute of Chicago. WWW Page: http://wwwoi_uchicago edu/OI/default html.
This impressive homepage highlights, "The Oriental Institute is a museum and research organization dedicated to the study of the ancient Near East. Founded in 1919 by James Henry Breasted, the Institute, part of the University of Chicago, is internationally recognized for its pioneering work in archaeology, philology, and the history of early Near Eastern civilizations." Be sure to explore the "Virtual Museum," featuring a variety of artifacts and artwork.

Pritchard, James B. The Ancient Near East in Pictures, Relating to the Old Testament, 2d ed. with supplement, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.
This intriguing and informative photographic survey showcases archaeological artifacts from ancient Near Eastern cultures. The book is organized by topic: I Peoples and Their Dress, II Daily Life, Writing, IV. Scenes from History and Monuments, and so on. Viewing these photographs offers readers a vivid sense of the daily life and practices of these ancient peoples.

Renger, Johannes M. "Mesopotamian Epic Literature," in Heroic Epic and Saga: An Introduction to the World's Great Folk Epics, edited by Felix J. Oinas, pp. 27-48, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978.
This is a general introduction to the epic literature of Mesopotamia, covering the Lugulbanda and Gilgamesh cycles. It includes a concise summary of literary techniques used in these epics.

Sandars, N. K. The Epic of Gilgamesh, revised edition, London: Penguin Books, 1972.
Sandars transforms the Epic into a narrative, making it one of the most approachable and readable translations available. This edition also includes a comprehensive introduction, although it is somewhat outdated now.

Sciafe, Ross and Suzanne Bonefas. Diotima. Materials for the Study of Women in the Ancient World, http://www.uky.edu/ArtsSciences/Classics/gender.html.
Features a searchable database and a robust collection of links on various topics concerning women and gender.

Siren, Christopher B. The Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ [Frequently Asked Questions], version 1.7html, October 6, 1995, http://wilmot.unh.edu/~cbsiren/assyrbabylfaq.html.
Together with its counterpart, Sumerian Mythology FAQ, these FAQs offer a convenient guide to the key elements of ancient Mesopotamian mythology. Includes a bibliography.

Siren, Christopher B. Sumerian Mythology (Version 1.8html), October 6, 1996, http://wilmot.unh.edu/cbsiren/sumerfaq.html.
Alongside its companion, Assyro-Babylonian Mythology FAQ, these FAQs serve as a useful guide to the principal aspects of ancient Mesopotamian mythology. Includes a bibliography.

Thompson, R. Campbell. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Text, Transliteration, and Notes, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930.
Although intended for specialists, it is intriguing to browse for its transliterations of Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian tablets. It also features Thompson's own hand-drawn copies of the individual cuneiform tablets.