Seventeenth-Century Advances

In the rich tapestry of Enlightenment thought, the luminaries of the seventeenth century cast a long shadow. Visionaries like Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke paved the way for progressive ideas. John Locke’s sensationalism—a conviction that our understanding springs from sensory experiences—captivated the minds of Voltaire and Rousseau. Locke's insights into the dance between individuality and society set the stage for Rousseau’s social contract theories, reshaping the intellectual landscape.

The seventeenth century was a crucible of innovation, birthing discoveries and inventions that fueled the Enlightenment's celebration of reason. As explorers charted the globe, they brought home tales that nurtured a newfound respect for diverse cultures, challenging Eurocentric assumptions. Such revelations emboldened Enlightenment thinkers to champion open-mindedness and tolerance, even as European rulers pressed on with imperial ambitions. Newton’s unveiling of gravity offered a glimpse into divine laws accessible through human intellect. This revelation, paired with Locke’s emphasis on experiential knowledge, fortified the belief that reason could unlock the mysteries of both nature and society. Enlightenment advocates urged a shift from blind faith in ancient texts towards a pursuit of understanding through observation and critical inquiry.

Censorship

In the vibrant world of eighteenth-century France, the pursuit of free expression often collided with the harsh realities of censorship. The whims of the Director of Publications determined which literary works saw the light of day. Even with the Director's blessing, books could still fall victim to the axe of the clergy, the Parliament of Paris, or the sovereign's edicts. In 1754, a royal decree ominously threatened death upon those daring enough to pen words against religion or authority. Yet, enforcement was capricious, enabling The Encyclopédie to flourish with royal favor while espousing revolutionary ideas.

Salons

Amidst such censorship, salons emerged as vibrant sanctuaries of intellectual exchange. These illustrious gatherings unfolded within the opulent homes of the elite, where sharp minds converged to shape the cultural discourse. It was the women of the salons who wielded considerable influence, setting the bar for taste and dictating the dance of fame and fortune. Paris’s salons, guided by both men and women, were the lifeblood of the philosophes, whose success depended on these gatherings. Books were scrutinized and debated within this refined arena, their fortunes sealed by the salon's verdicts. In the salons' rarefied air, wit was currency, and clever repartee was essential for survival.

The salons' societal exclusivity bred a mix of intrigue and rivalry, where the clever thrived in both speech and prose. While colonization often resulted in oppression, as ruling powers lacked the philosophes’ cultural appreciation, the United States harnessed Enlightenment ideals. Americans, driven by the quest for autonomy and societal betterment, rose against their oppressors. Today, the once-explored and colonized world seems devoid of new frontiers, and the Enlightenment’s legacy of political freedom remains a powerful repudiation of former colonial conquests.

American Revolution

The American Revolution (1775–1783) was a living testament to Enlightenment ideals, as thinkers delved into political and social realms during the 1770s. Advocates of liberty and governance that sought the greater good, figures like Rousseau envisioned a just pact between the rulers and the ruled. When Americans rebelled against British dominance, they were enacting Enlightenment philosophies. Early American visionaries like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin embraced these ideas, leaving an indelible mark on the young nation's foundation.

French Revolution

The French Revolution unfurled as the grand finale of the Enlightenment saga. Sparked by the ruling class's ineptitude, the oppressive burdens on the impoverished, and the Enlightenment's philosophy of popular sovereignty, especially as espoused by Rousseau, the Revolution found inspiration in...

Rhetoric

During the Enlightenment, two distinct and opposing schools of thought on rhetoric emerged. The Renaissance tradition, heavily influenced by Peter Ramus, lingered into the early Enlightenment era. Ramus challenged Aristotle’s integration of rhetoric and dialectic, arguing that, though they had historically been intertwined, they should now be separated. He championed a straightforward, unadorned style, believing that scientific and philosophical texts should strive to depict truth as clearly as possible. This direct approach aligned seamlessly with the Enlightenment’s emphasis on rationality and systematic observation. Yet, even as this style receded, a new rhetorical wave was rising.

As the Enlightenment drew to a close, the Belletristic Movement surged to prominence. Influential works such as Hugh Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (1783) and George Campbell’s Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776) were published. These authors advocated for eloquence, beauty, and emotion as tools to captivate and communicate effectively with audiences. The term belletristic, derived from the French belles-lettres, refers to literature valued not only for its content but also for its beauty. This movement resonated with Aristotelian principles, marking a dramatic shift from the initial direction rhetoric had taken at the Enlightenment’s beginning.

Satire

Despite the varied styles of Enlightenment literature, one unifying thread was its satirical edge. Satire emerged as a subtle art form for critiquing social and political issues, allowing readers to see beyond the facade to understand what societal flaw was being mocked. Through satire, the philosophes cleverly navigated past government censors, as their sharp critiques often eluded the authorities’ grasp. The rise in French censorship during the Enlightenment, provoked by revolutionary ideas, made satire an invaluable tool; it either slipped past unnoticed or found censors powerless to justify its suppression.

Moreover, satire provided a clever means of social critique. Enlightenment authors, known for their wit and sarcasm, naturally drew an astute audience. A popular satirical device involved introducing a foreign character bewildered by French society. The character’s naivety and ignorance made their criticisms seem equally naive or foolish. However, the irony lay in how the author used this character to expose the ridiculous and unjust aspects of French culture.

United States

The Enlightenment cast a profound influence over the nascent United States, guiding its fledgling steps as an autonomous nation. Although America produced scant Enlightenment literature, the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution vividly embodied the tenets championed by the philosophes. Central figures like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin were fervent admirers of Enlightenment thinkers, shaping their decision-making and political treatises. As Jefferson penned the Declaration of Independence, he wove into its fabric the core Enlightenment ideals—humankind's intrinsic virtue and capacity for self-governance, the injustices of tyrannical regimes, and the belief in the inalienable right of individuals to pursue happiness. The Constitution, crafted in 1787, enshrined many of these Enlightenment-inspired ideas, forming the bedrock of the American governmental system.

Scotland

David Hume’s philosophical explorations into human cognition and Adam Smith’s groundbreaking economic theories added dynamic layers to the Enlightenment landscape. Hume stood out as a philosopher rooted in Great Britain, in contrast to the predominantly Parisian philosophes. His ideologies upheld the Enlightenment's rationalist claims, yet he provocatively argued that sensory-derived knowledge was less reliable than traditionally believed. Unlike many contemporaries who faced censorship and backlash, Hume enjoyed broad acceptance, largely due to his focus on human thought processes and philosophical inquiry rather than contentious political or religious matters.

Renowned both in his homeland and across the Channel, Hume was warmly received in Parisian salons during his two-year sojourn, winning the hearts of the intellectual elite. His departure from Paris was with Rousseau by his side, though their camaraderie soured upon reaching London. Beyond his influence among the philosophes, Hume significantly impacted Transcendentalism. Immanuel Kant, a pivotal figure in Transcendentalism, credited reading Hume's work as a vital intellectual awakening.

In 1776, Adam Smith's seminal work, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (commonly known as The Wealth of Nations), represented the first substantial analysis of European trade, production, and commercial systems. Smith's close relationship with Hume nurtured and fueled his groundbreaking ideas. Beyond a meticulous economic analysis, Smith addressed the societal implications of economic practices. The Wealth of Nations illustrated that Enlightenment philosophies were applicable to nearly every facet of life, with its principles finding practical implementation in the burgeoning United States.

Late Eighteenth Century: By the 1770s, the flourishing printing industry revolutionized the distribution of newspapers and books, empowering Enlightenment writers to captivate a broader audience. As censorship began to decline, these thinkers articulated their views and theories with newfound boldness.

Today: The Internet serves as a vast platform, offering anyone the potential to communicate with a global audience. Innumerable ideas, theories, and ideologies now find eager readers across the globe, unfettered by traditional oversight.

Late Eighteenth Century: The year 1762 witnessed the publication of Rousseau’s Émile, a groundbreaking novel advocating a revolutionary approach to education. The author reflects the era's prevailing belief that women's education should remain limited, ultimately preparing them for a life centered around the home.

Today: Women have equal opportunities to pursue higher education alongside their male counterparts. While some choose to dedicate themselves to nurturing their families, it is a personal decision rather than a societal expectation.

Late Eighteenth Century: The era of European exploration and colonization reshaped the Enlightenment landscape. Exposure to diverse cultures inspired the philosophes to embrace cultural relativism and advocate for tolerance. However, colonization often resulted in oppression, as ruling powers failed to value cultural diversity. In the United States, this oppression ignited a revolutionary spirit, driving Americans to demand self-governance and societal reform in line with Enlightenment principles.

Today: The world has been thoroughly explored and colonized, leaving no uncharted territories or societies to conquer. The enduring success of Enlightenment ideals, particularly the pursuit of political freedom, has rendered the colonial practices of previous centuries distasteful to many in the modern era.

Candide

Voltaire's masterwork, Candide (1759), stands as a brilliant satire, poking fun at the philosophical currents of his era. The tale unfolds with Candide and his eclectic band of travelers—Pangloss, the eternal optimist; Cunégonde, his heart's desire; Martin, the skeptic; and Cacambo, his loyal servant—as they brave a series of misadventures, bearing witness to the darkest displays of human folly and cruelty. Ultimately, Candide arrives at the poignant realization that engaging in endless philosophical discourse is futile, and that true contentment lies in tending to one's own garden.

The intricately woven narrative of Candide mirrors, with biting clarity, the events familiar to Voltaire's contemporaries. With unerring precision, Voltaire critiques philosophical optimism and pessimism, the aristocracy, warfare, and organized religion. He exposes the hypocrisy and abuses perpetrated by both the church and state. While Enlightenment adherents lauded Voltaire's audacity in depicting these social truths, the more conservative factions heaped scorn on him. Today, students of the Enlightenment turn to Candide as a quintessential example of the fiction endorsed by the philosophes, rich with Enlightenment ideals.

Declaration of Independence

With the bold stroke of a pen in July 1776, the thirteen American colonies formally broke ties with England by signing the Declaration of Independence. This pivotal document was not merely a statement of separation but served as a clarion call declaring war against England, with whom hostilities had already erupted, and as a plea for foreign assistance in the ensuing struggle. It meticulously delineates the colonial grievances, casting a harsh light on the injustices suffered under the English monarchy.

When the Continental Congress resolved to seek independence, a committee was tasked with drafting this historic declaration. Thomas Jefferson, a fervent admirer of France and Enlightenment philosophies, took on the momentous responsibility of crafting the initial draft. Through the Declaration of Independence, Enlightenment principles were woven into the fabric of political reality. It embodies the concepts of self-governance, civil liberties, and a social contract that favors both the governed and the governing. Although Jefferson's original draft underwent revisions by the Second Continental Congress, his legacy remains that of its principal architect.

Opening with the Preamble, the Declaration of Independence articulates the document's purpose and outlines the aspirations of the nascent government. The Preamble boldly proclaims that citizens are entitled to fundamental rights, which no government should infringe upon. It meticulously lists twenty-seven grievances against King George III, serving as a stark reminder of the tyranny the new American government seeks to avoid. Asserting itself as a sovereign entity, the fledgling nation of America claims the right to wage war, levy taxes, conduct trade, engage in international diplomacy, and govern independently.

Émile

In 1762, Rousseau's educational treatise Émile burst onto the scene alongside his seminal political work, The Social Contract. Within Émile, Rousseau unveils his revolutionary vision for education, chronicling the progress of the fictional character from infancy through adolescence. The narrative illustrates an ideal education provided by a dedicated tutor who nurtures the child's growth on an individual basis. Rousseau championed an educational philosophy that sought not to amass facts and figures, but to draw out each child's latent talents and potential. His student-centered approach valued inherent intelligence over standardized benchmarks.

The year 1762 marked a watershed moment for Rousseau. As his radical notions on politics and education reached the public arena, he became a figure of controversy. Though The Social Contract ignited more fervent debate, some of the religious themes within Émile led to its prohibition in France and Switzerland. However, today, the book is revered as a cornerstone of educational theory, and Rousseau is celebrated as a visionary ahead of his time. While his ideas are not fully implemented, they continue to exert influence on contemporary teaching methodologies. Some scholars even credit Rousseau with laying the groundwork for child psychology.

Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie stands as a monument to Enlightenment thinking. Over two decades, Diderot and fellow contributors meticulously crafted this magnum opus, which remains a treasure trove of knowledge, rendered in compelling yet accessible prose. Initially envisioned as a translation of an existing work, Diderot's ambition transformed it into a comprehensive compendium capturing the era's most vital knowledge. Its pages traverse subjects from technology and craft to history and philosophy, with Diderot's philosophical essays shining particularly brightly.

Unlike modern encyclopedias, which strive for neutrality, the Encyclopédie offered articles infused with perspective on science, politics, world cultures, religion, and philosophy. Through these volumes, the philosophes challenged the dominant theologies and philosophies, articulating Enlightenment principles. Diderot envisioned the Encyclopédie as a beacon for those seeking wisdom beyond the traditional confines of the church.

The Social Contract

In his groundbreaking 1762 treatise, The Social Contract, Rousseau eloquently argues that a government bears moral duties towards its citizens. To Rousseau, many governments fail in these duties—"man is born free, but he is everywhere in chains." True authority, he contends, emerges from a fair pact between the government and its people, a covenant he dubs "the social contract."

Rousseau's work drew inspiration from a wide array of thinkers, including John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and the ancient Greek philosophers. Upon its release, The Social Contract was met with widespread indignation and hostility. Rousseau faced widespread disdain across France, and attempts were made to censor and suppress his work. Although Rousseau passed away in 1778, his philosophy profoundly influenced the French Revolution (1789–1799). By 1794, in the throes of revolution, his remains were ceremoniously relocated to Paris to be interred in the Pantheon as a national hero.

Film Adaptation

The tale of Candide found its way to the silver screen in 1961, thanks to the creative vision of the French cinematic pioneers Courts et Longs Métrages and Société Nouvelle Pathé Cinéma. This adaptation crossed the Atlantic, making its debut in the United States with English subtitles, distributed by Union Films.

Television Interpretations

Venturing into the realm of television, Candide was reimagined on screen in 1973 by the inventive minds at the British Broadcasting Corporation. A little over a decade later, in 1986, the Public Broadcasting Service offered its own unique take on this enduring classic.

Musical Rendition

The vibrant world of musical theatre embraced Candide in 1989, when Deutsche Grammophon from Germany, in collaboration with the American Video Music Production, unveiled a melodious adaptation. This production was enriched by the iconic compositions of Leonard Bernstein, bringing the story to life through music and song.

Sources

Chambers, Whittaker, “The Age of Enlightenment,” in Ghosts on the Roof: Selected Journalism of Whittaker Chambers, 1931–1959, edited by Terry Teachout, Regnery Gateway, 1989.

Gay, Peter, The Party of Humanity: Essays in the French Enlightenment, Alfred A. Knopf, 1964.

Hampson, Norman, The Enlightenment, Penguin Books, 1968.

Further Reading

Broadie, Alexander, ed., The Scottish Enlightenment: An Anthology, Canongate Publications Limited, 1998. Broadie reveals the importance of Scottish thinkers and writers during the Enlightenment by compiling historical information with relevant writings, some of which have not been reprinted since the eighteenth century. The book is arranged by subject, making it easy for students to find passages relevant to their interests. Gossman, Lionel, French Society and Culture: Background for Eighteenth-Century Literature, Prentice-Hall, 1972. Gossman presents a historical and cultural context for the Enlightenment and other writing during eighteenth- century France. This context depicts the society in which and for which the Enlightenment emerged.

Green, Frederick C., Literary Ideas in 18th-Century France and England: A Critical Survey, Frederick Ungar Publishing Company, 1966. This enduring study of eighteenth-century thought and literature provides a thorough context for studying the Enlightenment. There are numerous references to the career of Denis Diderot, philosopher and encyclopedist of the Enlightenment in France.

Porter, Roy, The Creation of the Modern World: The British Enlightenment, W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. Porter revises traditional opinion in regard to the importance of British writers during the Enlightenment. Although emphasis is usually placed on France and America, Porter demonstrates how the movement was advanced by the efforts of great British thinkers, who made a substantial impact on their society.

Spencer, Samia I., ed., French Women and the Age of Enlightenment, Indiana University Press, 1984. This collection of essays sheds light on the role of women during the Enlightenment. The essays explore the important contributions made by women in politics, society, culture, and science.